SACD

A Sony music disc, a read-only format compatible with CD players introduced in 1999. Higher quality audio is played back on new SACD machines, developed with the intention to supersede CD audio.

Sales Formula

A mathematical formula used in a Recording Contract or Publishing Contract. It states that the Advances for a subsequent album will be calculated as a percentage of Artist Royalties or publishing royalties, as earned by a previous album by the artist.

The Advance will most likely not be less than a specified minimum or more than a specified maximum. The formula is normally limited to sales of the immediately previous album and must be within a defined period after the album was initially released.

Example

The advance for the 3rd Album will be 65% of the royalties credited to the artist’s account relating to top-line sales of the 2nd Album (without Reserves) through Normal Retail Channels in the United States as of 15 months after the initial US release date of the 2nd album, where the advance will not be less than $40,000 or more than $75,000.

Sample Clearance

Sample Clearance is when you get approval to use a sample, taken from a copyrighted audio recording, within a new composition.

Sample Rate

Sample Rate is the rate at which samples of an Analogue signal are taken to create a Digital image of that signal.

Sampler

A Sampler is a unit capable of recording, storing, and playing back audio samples.

Samples

Pre-existing Sound Recordings and songs that are:

(a) Copyright protected

(b) incorporated into a new Sound Recording, of normally a different song

(c) owned by someone other than the artist or Producer creating the new Recording.

To clear a song sample most Publishers will demand to own a portion of the Copyright in the new song. In this context, “clear” means to get a license from the owner of the pre-existing song.

To clear a sample from a recording most Record Labels want an upfront fee and sometimes a royalty from the Record Label releasing the new Sound Recording. In this context, “clear” means to get a license from the owner of the Sound Recording.

Sampling

Sampling requires Record Label and Publisher clearance. There is no fixed rate for clearance. In the U.K., sometimes, sampling is allowed under a blanket MCPS agreement as an assignment to pay the writer mechanical income. If the work is not assigned to MCPS the sample should also be cleared through the Publisher.

Sampling Rate

Sampling is the process of taking a portion, or “sample,” of an existing sound recording and reusing it as an element in a new piece of music. It is a foundational technique in modern music production, especially in genres like hip-hop, electronic, and pop.

A sample can be anything: a drumbeat, a melody, a vocal phrase, or even ambient noise. Once extracted, it can be looped, manipulated, or layered to create entirely new sounds and arrangements.

Key Aspects of Sampling

1. Audio Sources
   • Samples are often taken from other songs, sound effects, or field recordings. Vintage records, movies, and live performances are common sources for unique or nostalgic sounds.
2. Tools for Sampling
   • Samplers: Hardware or software devices used to capture, edit, and trigger samples (e.g., Akai MPC or Ableton Live).
   • DAWs (Digital Audio Workstations): Many modern DAWs include built-in tools for slicing and editing audio samples.
3. Manipulation Techniques
   • Time Stretching: Changing the tempo of a sample without affecting its pitch.
   • Pitch Shifting: Altering the pitch of a sample to fit a new key.
   • Chopping: Splitting a sample into smaller sections to rearrange or play them rhythmically.
4. Creative Applications
   • Producers use sampling to add texture, create beats, or pay homage to other works. For example, a sampled drum break might form the backbone of a track, while a vocal snippet could provide a catchy hook.

Legal and Ethical Considerations

Sampling often requires permission from the copyright holder of the original recording and underlying composition. Unauthorized sampling can lead to legal disputes, so licensing or creating original recordings is essential for commercial releases.

In essence, sampling bridges the old and the new, enabling musicians to reinterpret existing sounds in innovative and personal ways.

Saturation

Saturation in music production refers to the process of adding harmonic distortion to an audio signal, often mimicking the warm, rich sound of analog equipment such as tape machines, tube amplifiers, and vintage hardware. It enhances the character and warmth of audio, making it sound fuller and more pleasing to the ear.

Saturation occurs naturally in analog gear when the signal level exceeds the equipment’s capacity to process it cleanly. In the digital realm, saturation can be applied using plugins or dedicated hardware emulators to recreate this effect.

Types of Saturation

1. Tape Saturation
   • Simulates the subtle compression and harmonic warmth of recording on magnetic tape.
   • Commonly used to add depth and smoothness to tracks.
2. Tube Saturation
   • Emulates the harmonic distortion from overdriving vacuum tubes in amplifiers.
   • Known for producing a warm and slightly aggressive tone, often used in vocals or guitars.
3. Transient Saturation
   • Targets sharp peaks in audio, softening harsh sounds and making the track feel more cohesive.

Applications of Saturation

1. Enhancing Warmth
   • Adds a pleasant, organic quality to sterile or overly clean digital recordings.
2. Thickening Sounds
   • Helps individual tracks, like vocals or bass, feel richer and more present in the mix.
3. Balancing Dynamics
   • Introduces natural compression that can smooth out uneven audio levels without sounding artificial.
4. Creative Effects
   • Can be pushed to extremes for distortion effects in genres like rock, hip-hop, and electronic music.

Saturation vs. Distortion

While both involve adding harmonic content, saturation is more subtle and musical, often used for enhancement, whereas distortion is typically more aggressive and used for dramatic effects.

Saturation is a versatile tool in modern music production, helping to inject life and character into digital recordings.

Saxophone

The saxophone is a woodwind instrument known for its expressive sound and versatility across genres, including jazz, classical, rock, and pop. Despite being made of brass, it is classified as a woodwind because it uses a single-reed mouthpiece similar to the clarinet.

The saxophone was invented in the 1840s by Belgian instrument maker Adolphe Sax, who designed it to bridge the tonal qualities of brass and woodwind instruments.

Types of Saxophones

Saxophones come in various sizes, each with a unique pitch range and tonal character. The most common types are:

1. Soprano Saxophone
   • Higher-pitched, with a bright and piercing tone.
   • Often used in classical music and contemporary jazz.
2. Alto Saxophone
   • Medium-pitched, with a rich, versatile tone.
   • Popular for beginners and widely used in jazz, classical, and pop.
3. Tenor Saxophone
   • Slightly larger than the alto, with a deeper, warmer tone.
   • Iconic in jazz and rock music (e.g., John Coltrane, Clarence Clemons).
4. Baritone Saxophone
   • Large and low-pitched, with a robust, resonant tone.
   • Common in jazz ensembles and wind bands.

How the Saxophone Works

1. Reed and Mouthpiece:
   • The reed vibrates when air is blown through it, producing sound.
2. Tone Holes and Keys:
   • Opening and closing the keys changes the length of the air column, altering the pitch.
3. Bell:
   • Projects the sound, especially for lower notes.

Famous Saxophonists

• Charlie Parker: Revolutionized jazz with his alto sax.
• John Coltrane: Renowned for his tenor sax work in jazz.
• Lisa Simpson (fictional): Pop culture icon associated with the saxophone.

Genres Featuring the Saxophone

• Jazz: The saxophone is central to many jazz styles, from bebop to smooth jazz.
• Classical: Used in orchestral and solo compositions by composers like Debussy and Glazounov.
• Pop/Rock: Iconic solos in songs like “Baker Street” by Gerry Rafferty.

The saxophone’s dynamic range and emotive sound make it one of the most distinctive and beloved instruments in music.

Scale

A scale in music is a sequence of notes arranged in ascending or descending order by pitch. Scales serve as the foundation for melodies, harmonies, and improvisation, providing a framework for organizing musical ideas.

Scales are defined by their intervals—the distances between consecutive notes. They are often built within an octave, a range spanning eight notes, where the first and last notes are the same pitch class (e.g., C to C). Once you understand scales, you’ll notice they influence the mood, tonality, and character of a piece of music.

Common Types of Scales

1. Major Scale
   • A bright and happy-sounding scale.
   • Defined by the pattern of whole and half steps: W-W-H-W-W-W-H (e.g., C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C).
2. Minor Scale
   • Typically conveys a sadder or more dramatic tone.
   • Variants include natural minor, harmonic minor, and melodic minor.
3. Pentatonic Scale
   • Contains only five notes per octave.
   • Popular in folk, blues, and rock music for its simplicity and versatility.
4. Chromatic Scale
   • Includes all 12 notes in an octave, each separated by a half step.
   • Often used for tension, transitions, or color in music.
5. Blues Scale
   • A variation of the pentatonic scale with added “blue notes” that emphasize expressive tones in blues and jazz.

Scales are essential tools for musicians and composers, guiding note choices for melodies, harmonies, and solos. Learning scales is often one of the first steps for anyone studying music, as they unlock a deeper understanding of musical structure and creativity.

Semitone

A semitone is the smallest musical interval used in Western music, representing the distance between two adjacent notes on a 12-tone scale. It is also known as a half step. On a piano, a semitone corresponds to the distance between two directly adjacent keys, whether white-to-black or white-to-white (e.g., E to F or B to C).

Semitones are the building blocks of Western music, forming the basis of scales, chords, and melodies. There are 12 semitones in an octave, and they are evenly spaced in terms of pitch.

Examples of Semitones

1. On a Piano:
   • From C to C♯ (sharp) or D♭ (flat).
   • From E to F (no black key between them).
2. On a Guitar:
   • Moving one fret up or down corresponds to a semitone.

Musical Context

1. Chromatic Scale:
   • Consists entirely of semitones, moving step by step through all 12 notes in an octave (e.g., C, C♯, D, D♯, etc.).
2. Tonal Tension:
   • Semitones are often used to create tension or resolution in music. For example, the leading tone (seventh note of a major scale) resolves up by a semitone to the tonic (eighth note).
3. Intervals:
   • Larger intervals (like a whole tone, third, or fifth) are made up of multiple semitones. For instance, a whole tone equals two semitones.

Importance of Semitones

Semitones are essential in creating the unique flavor of Western music, enabling key modulations, melodic intricacies, and harmonic depth. They provide the framework for expressive elements such as microtonal inflections or dissonance, adding emotional nuance to compositions.

Sequencer

A sequencer is a device or software that records, edits, and plays back sequences of musical data, such as notes, rhythms, and automation. Sequencers are essential tools in modern music production, enabling musicians and producers to arrange and manipulate sounds with precision.

Originally, sequencers were hardware-based and controlled analog synthesizers. Today, most sequencers are digital and integrated into DAWs (Digital Audio Workstations) or standalone software, though hardware sequencers still play a key role in electronic and live music setups.

How a Sequencer Works

1. Step Recording
   • Users input notes step-by-step, assigning pitches, durations, and velocities. Each “step” corresponds to a beat or a subdivision of a beat.
2. Real-Time Recording
   • Musicians can record performances in real-time, with the sequencer capturing note timing and dynamics.
3. Playback
   • Sequencers play back recorded data, either controlling virtual instruments, synthesizers, or triggering audio samples.
4. Editing
   • Notes and parameters can be adjusted after recording, allowing precise control over timing, pitch, velocity, and effects automation.

Types of Sequencers

1. Piano Roll Sequencer
   • Found in most DAWs, displays notes on a grid for intuitive editing.
2. Step Sequencer
   • Common in drum machines and synthesizers, where users program patterns step-by-step.
3. Hardware Sequencers
   • Physical devices used for hands-on control in live performances and modular setups.

Applications

• Composition: Arrange melodies, harmonies, and rhythms.
• Automation: Control parameters like volume, panning, or filter sweeps over time.
• Live Performance: Trigger loops and patterns dynamically.

Key Example Tools

• Software: Ableton Live, FL Studio, Logic Pro.
• Hardware: Akai MPC, Elektron Octatrack, Roland TR series.

Sequencers revolutionized music production, offering a flexible and efficient way to create, experiment, and bring musical ideas to life.

Serial Copy Management System (SCMS)

The Serial Copy Management System prevents the copying of controlled digital media on machines that support SCMS. SCMS works by setting a marker on any new recordings. Recordings with the marker cannot be copied again in SCMS supporting machines.

SCMS is part of the Sony/Philips Digital Interface (S/PDIF) format.

Schlock

This is the sale of records by Distributors at a rock-bottom price. This is also known as dumping or distress sales.

Under recording agreements, schlock does not result in the payment of Artist Royalties.

Score

(1) A Score is the music soundtrack for an audio-visual production such as motion pictures, television programs, and video games.

Score and Underscore are sometimes used interchangeably.

A Score is usually a collection of compositions including other background and incidental music, any Music Cue, and any Source Music that is part of a soundtrack.

(2) A score in music refers to the written or printed representation of a musical composition. It provides detailed instructions for performers, conductors, and producers, indicating the notes, rhythms, dynamics, and instrumentation of a piece. Scores can be used for orchestral works, film music, ensembles, or individual instruments.

Types of Scores

1. Full Score
   • Contains all parts of a composition written on separate staves.
   • Used by conductors to oversee and interpret the performance of an ensemble or orchestra.
2. Piano Score
   • A reduction of a larger composition (e.g., orchestral or choral works) arranged for piano.
3. Vocal Score
   • Includes the vocal parts of a composition, such as an opera or choral work, often with piano accompaniment.
4. Lead Sheet
   • A simplified version of a score showing the melody, lyrics (if applicable), and chords. Common in jazz, pop, and rock music.
5. Film or Media Score
   • A written document for music composed specifically for films, TV, or video games, often synced to visuals.
6. Tablature (Tab)
   • A type of score for fretted instruments like guitar, using numbers and strings to indicate notes instead of traditional notation.

Key Elements of a Score

1. Notation: Notes, rhythms, dynamics, articulations, and tempo markings.
2. Instrumentation: Identifies which instrument or voice performs each part.
3. Layout: Multiple staves stacked together in ensemble scores, with instruments grouped logically (e.g., strings, winds, percussion).

Uses of Scores

• Performance: Provides musicians with the detailed information needed to perform a piece.
• Composition: Allows composers to communicate their ideas clearly to performers.
• Education: Serves as a tool for studying music theory and analysis.

Famous Examples of Scores

• Classical: Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9 (full orchestral score).
• Film: John Williams’s Star Wars score, written to enhance cinematic storytelling.
• Modern Ensemble: Leonard Bernstein’s West Side Story vocal score.

The score is an essential document in music, functioning as the blueprint that connects the composer’s vision with the performers’ interpretation.

Scoring

The process of creating a Score.

Scrap

Scrap is what a Record Label calls the raw materials to be recovered from unsold Physical Records.

Scrap from recycling was common when Records were made from vinyl. Compact discs and Jewel Boxes have also been recycled.

Record Labels sell scrap to recycling companies at a nominal cost.

No Artist Royalties are paid for scrapped Records except in the rarest of cases.

Scratching

Scratching is a DJ technique where a vinyl record is manually moved back and forth on a turntable while the audio is played through a mixer. The resulting sound adds rhythmic or percussive effects, often used creatively in hip-hop, electronic, and other genres to enhance a track or performance.

Scratching is both a musical and technical skill, requiring precision, timing, and creativity.

How Scratching Works

1. Turntable Manipulation
   • The DJ moves the vinyl record forward and backward while the stylus (needle) is in the groove, producing a distinctive “scratching” sound.
2. Crossfader Control
   • Using the mixer’s crossfader, the DJ can control when the sound is heard, cutting in and out for additional rhythmic effects.
3. Combining Movements
   • DJs often combine scratching with beatmatching, looping, and sampling for dynamic performances.

Basic Scratching Techniques

1. Baby Scratch:
   • The simplest scratch, involving moving the record back and forth without using the crossfader.
2. Chirp Scratch:
   • Uses the crossfader to create a sharp, clean sound at the beginning of each motion.
3. Transformer Scratch:
   • Rapidly toggles the crossfader on and off while moving the record, creating a stuttering effect.
4. Crab Scratch:
   • A more advanced technique where the DJ uses multiple fingers to manipulate the crossfader in quick succession.

History and Cultural Significance

• Origins: Scratching was popularized in the 1970s by DJs in the Bronx, with pioneers like Grand Wizzard Theodore credited with inventing the technique.
• Hip-Hop Culture: Became a defining element of turntablism and hip-hop music, showcasing the DJ as a creative artist rather than just a playback operator.
• Modern Usage: Scratching remains vital in electronic, hip-hop, and experimental music, often performed with vinyl, digital controllers, or hybrid setups.

Famous Scratch DJs

• Grandmaster Flash: A pioneer in turntablism.
• DJ Qbert: Known for advanced techniques and innovation.
• Jam Master Jay: Brought scratching to mainstream audiences with Run-D.M.C.

Scratching adds rhythm, texture, and personality to DJ performances, making it an iconic and evolving art form in modern music.

SDMI

The Secure Digital Music Initiative was an ineffective copy-protection project used in MiniDisc.

Service Mark

A Service Mark is the name identified with a service. (See Trademark.)

Session

A session is a block of time recording at a professional recording studio.

Session Musician

Session musicians are musicians who contribute to either a recording or a live performance. Session Musicians may have an ongoing contract with an artist but they are not full-time band members.

Session musicians are paid a fee for performing at recording sessions. The fee is a single payment, not a royalty. In the U.K. the fee should be at or above the rate stipulated by the Musicians’ Union.

Shaker

A shaker is a percussion instrument that produces sound by moving small objects (such as beads, seeds, or pellets) inside a hollow container. The sound is created by shaking the instrument rhythmically, making it a versatile tool for adding texture and groove to music.

Shakers are widely used in various genres, including Latin, world, pop, rock, and jazz, and are a staple in both live performances and studio recordings.

Design and Construction

1. Materials:
   • Commonly made of wood, plastic, metal, or natural materials like gourds.
   • The filling varies (e.g., beads, sand, or seeds) to produce different tones and volumes.
2. Shapes and Sizes:
   • Cylindrical, egg-shaped, or custom designs.
   • Smaller shakers produce higher-pitched, subtle sounds, while larger ones create deeper, louder tones.

How to Play a Shaker

• Basic Technique: Hold the shaker in one hand and shake it back and forth in time with the music.
• Advanced Techniques:
  • Controlled movements for precise rhythms.
  • Accents achieved by varying shake intensity.
  • Circular or rolling motions for unique sound patterns.

Uses of Shakers

1. Rhythmic Enhancement:
   • Add subtle or prominent rhythmic layers to a song.
2. Dynamic Variation:
   • Used in softer sections to maintain rhythm without overpowering other instruments.
3. Genres:
   • Prominent in Latin and African music, but also widely used in pop, folk, and acoustic settings.

Common Types of Shakers

1. Egg Shakers: Small, egg-shaped shakers ideal for precise rhythms and portability.
2. Gourd Shakers: Made from dried gourds, offering a natural and earthy sound.
3. Maracas: Paired shakers with handles, traditionally used in Latin music.
4. Tube Shakers: Cylindrical and often louder, suitable for live settings.

The shaker is a simple yet powerful instrument that adds rhythm, texture, and personality to music, making it a go-to choice for percussionists and producers alike.

Sheet Music

Music Publishing began with the publication of sheet music such as notation, scores, songbooks, any music, lyric books, etc. Unfortunately, sheet music publishing is much less popular today.

Music Publishers collect royalties for both printed paper and digital versions of sheet music.

Shellac 78

In the 1920s records were manufactured using a number of materials before settling on shellac as the material of choice. Similarly, a variety of disc speeds were used before settling on playback at 78 rpm.

An alcohol-soluble organic resin produced by small beetles, Shellac has a number of uses, including as a wood lacquer. Shellac discs are brittle and prone to severe damage.

In the 1940s shellac was superseded by the much harder wearing vinyl.

Shelving

This is a type of filter that affects all frequencies above or below a threshold frequency.

Showcase

An event staged to present a developing act to A&R men (in the hope of getting signed) or to present a signed act to the media for promotion.

Shred Guitar

Shred guitar is a style of guitar playing characterized by extremely fast, technically advanced, and often flamboyant performances. It emphasizes speed, precision, and mastery of complex techniques, making it a hallmark of virtuosic guitar playing in genres such as heavy metal, rock, and instrumental music.

Key Characteristics of Shred Guitar

1. Speed and Dexterity:
   • Players perform rapid sequences of notes, often requiring advanced finger coordination and picking accuracy.
2. Technical Complexity:
   • Incorporates advanced techniques like sweep picking, alternate picking, legato, tapping, and string skipping.
3. Musical Virtuosity:
   • Showcases the player’s technical skill, often through elaborate solos, scales, and arpeggios.
4. Expressiveness:
   • While technical prowess is central, shred guitarists also focus on dynamics, phrasing, and emotional delivery.

Techniques Used in Shred Guitar

1. Sweep Picking: Playing multiple strings in a single fluid motion to create rapid arpeggios.
2. Tapping: Using fingers from both hands to tap notes on the fretboard for fast, intricate passages.
3. Alternate Picking: Alternating between downstrokes and upstrokes for speed and consistency.
4. Legato: Using hammer-ons and pull-offs to achieve a smooth, flowing sound.
5. String Skipping: Leaping over strings to create unique melodic patterns.

Famous Shred Guitarists

• Eddie Van Halen: Revolutionized tapping techniques.
• Steve Vai: Known for blending speed with expressive phrasing.
• Yngwie Malmsteen: Pioneered neoclassical shred guitar with his fast arpeggios and scales.
• Joe Satriani: Combined shred with melodic and innovative approaches.

Genres Featuring Shred Guitar

• Heavy Metal: Dominates subgenres like power metal and progressive metal.
• Rock: Often appears in solos or instrumental rock tracks.
• Instrumental Music: Allows guitarists to explore technical and musical boundaries without vocal accompaniment.

Shred guitar is a dazzling display of technical skill and artistry, inspiring generations of guitarists to push the boundaries of speed, technique, and creativity.

Sibilant

Having, containing, or producing the sound of or a sound resembling that of the s or the “sh”, in “sash”.

Side End Distortion

Vinyl records experience significant degradation in audio quality at the end of a side. This is because the record stylus tracks at about half the speed that it does at the side beginning, the first (outer) track. This is called Side End Distortion.

Sidechain Compression

Sidechain compression is an audio processing technique where the compressor’s gain reduction is controlled by an external audio source (the “sidechain”), rather than the signal being compressed. It is widely used in music production to create dynamic and rhythmic effects, improve clarity in mixes, and add energy to tracks.

How Sidechain Compression Works

1. Primary Signal:
   • The signal you want to compress (e.g., a bassline or pad).
2. Sidechain Input:
   • The external signal that triggers the compression (e.g., a kick drum).
3. Compression Behavior:
   • When the sidechain signal exceeds the threshold, the compressor reduces the volume of the primary signal. This creates space for the sidechain sound to stand out.

Uses of Sidechain Compression

1. Mix Clarity:
   • Commonly used to make kick drums more prominent by “ducking” other elements like basslines.
2. Rhythmic Effects:
   • In genres like EDM, house, and pop, sidechain compression creates the signature “pumping” effect by synchronizing compression with the beat.
3. Vocals in a Dense Mix:
   • Ducking instrument levels when vocals are active ensures the lyrics remain clear.
4. Sound Design:
   • Sidechain compression can add movement and dynamics to pads, synths, or effects.

Example Setup

1. Route the kick drum to the sidechain input of a compressor applied to the bass track.
2. Adjust the compressor’s threshold, ratio, attack, and release to control the ducking intensity and timing.

Popular Tools for Sidechain Compression

• Software: Ableton Live’s Compressor, Logic Pro’s Compressor, FabFilter Pro-C.
• Hardware: Analog compressors with sidechain inputs.

Sidechain compression is a versatile and creative tool that enhances both technical precision and artistic impact in music production.

Sideman

A sideman is a person, hired to perform with an artist, augmenting the regular performers on a recording or at a concert who is not a regular member of the artist lineup.

Example

The band members are not sidemen in the band “The Dave Matthews Band.”

If The Dave Matthews Band (TDMB) bring in someone who is not a member to record with TDMB or to perform with them at some concerts (either as a guest artist or not), they are considered to be a sideman.

Backing vocalists and musicians of any kind are considered to be sidemen provided they are not members of the band.

Sideman Exclusion

Artists who are currently signed to a Record Label are governed by an exclusive Record Contract. Under the terms of that Record Contract, they will not be permitted to record anything for anyone other than their Record Label.

The sideman exclusion is a clause in the governing recording contract that lets the artist perform as a sideman on records that feature other artists, as long as certain specified conditions are met, without breaching the exclusivity of their governing Record Contract.

Sight Reading

Sight-reading is the ability to read and perform a piece of music directly from written notation without prior preparation or practice. It is a valuable skill for musicians, allowing them to quickly interpret new pieces, collaborate in ensembles, and perform on the spot.

Key Components of Sight-Reading

1. Music Notation Literacy
   • The ability to understand and interpret notes, rhythms, dynamics, articulations, and other symbols in standard sheet music.
2. Real-Time Execution
   • Musicians must process the information on the page and translate it into their instrument’s technique or vocal performance in real time.
3. Error Management
   • Sight-reading involves playing or singing as accurately as possible while maintaining flow and musicality, even if mistakes occur.

Why Sight-Reading is Important

• Versatility: Essential for session musicians, accompanists, and ensemble players who need to perform unfamiliar music with little notice.
• Collaboration: Facilitates seamless rehearsals and performances in group settings, such as orchestras, choirs, or bands.
• Professionalism: A critical skill in auditions, studio sessions, and live performances where time is limited.

Tips for Improving Sight-Reading

1. Practice Regularly: Work on unfamiliar pieces to build confidence and fluency.
2. Focus on Key Details: Quickly identify key signature, time signature, tempo, and dynamics.
3. Read Ahead: Train your eyes to scan a measure or two ahead while playing.
4. Start Simple: Begin with easy pieces and gradually increase complexity.
5. Stay Calm: Maintaining composure helps minimize errors and improves flow.

Common Sight-Reading Scenarios

• Playing a part in an orchestra or band rehearsal.
• Accompanying a vocalist or instrumentalist.
• Recording music for films or commercials.

Sight-reading is an invaluable skill that combines technical ability, musicality, and quick thinking, enabling musicians to perform confidently and adapt to new challenges.

Signal Flow

Signal flow refers to the path an audio signal takes from its source to its destination within a recording, mixing, or live sound system. Understanding signal flow is essential for troubleshooting, optimizing sound quality, and making efficient use of equipment in any audio setup.

Key Stages of Signal Flow

1. Source
   • The origin of the audio signal, such as a microphone, instrument, or synthesizer.
2. Input Stage
   • The signal enters a preamp, mixer, or audio interface, where it is amplified and prepared for processing.
3. Processing
   • Effects such as equalization (EQ), compression, and reverb are applied. This can occur via hardware (e.g., pedals or racks) or software (e.g., plugins in a DAW).
4. Routing
   • The signal can be directed to various paths, such as submixes, buses, or sends/returns for parallel processing.
5. Amplification
   • The signal is boosted for playback through speakers or headphones.
6. Output Stage
   • The signal reaches its final destination, such as a speaker, recorder, or broadcast system.

Types of Signal Flow

1. Analog Signal Flow
   • Involves physical cables and hardware, such as mixers, patch bays, and effects units.
2. Digital Signal Flow
   • Managed within software, like a DAW, where virtual routing and plugins replace physical connections.
3. Hybrid Signal Flow
   • Combines analog and digital elements, often used in modern studios.

Uses of Signal Flow

• Studio Recording: Efficient routing ensures clean recordings with minimal noise or latency.
• Live Sound: Proper signal flow prevents feedback, distortion, and other issues during performances.
• Mixing and Mastering: Knowing how to route signals through effects and buses streamlines workflow and enhances creativity.

Understanding signal flow is fundamental for anyone working with audio, enabling smoother setups, faster troubleshooting, and better overall sound.

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR, S/N)

The level of the desired signal is compared with the level of background noise. SNR is the ratio of signal power to noise power. It is commonly expressed as dB.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measurement that compares the level of the desired audio signal to the level of background noise. It is expressed in decibels (dB) and indicates the clarity and quality of an audio signal. A higher SNR means less noise and a cleaner, more distinct sound.

How SNR Works

1. Signal Level:
   • The strength of the desired audio signal, such as music, speech, or any sound you want to hear clearly.
2. Noise Level:
   • The level of unwanted background noise, such as hums, hisses, or electronic interference.
3. SNR Formula:
   • SNR (dB)=10log⁡10(Signal Power/Noise Power)
   • A higher ratio indicates that the signal is much stronger than the noise.

Applications of SNR

1. Recording and Mixing:
   • A high SNR ensures clean recordings with minimal interference from ambient or equipment noise.
2. Live Sound:
   • Ensuring microphones, speakers, and other equipment have high SNR reduces background noise in live performances.
3. Consumer Electronics:
   • Used in audio devices like headphones, microphones, and preamps to determine sound quality.
4. Broadcasting:
   • Ensures that radio and television signals are clear and free of static or interference.

Factors Affecting SNR

• Microphone and Equipment Quality: High-quality gear produces less noise.
• Recording Environment: A quiet, treated space reduces external noise.
• Gain Staging: Proper gain settings prevent noise from being amplified disproportionately.

Ideal SNR Values

• Professional Audio Equipment: 90 dB or higher.
• Consumer Electronics: 60–80 dB is acceptable for casual listening.

Why SNR Matters

• Clarity: A high SNR ensures that the audience hears the intended audio without distraction.
• Precision: Essential for critical tasks like mastering or live sound mixing.
• Enjoyment: Clean sound improves the overall listening experience.

Signal-to-noise ratio is a critical metric in audio production and playback, defining the balance between clarity and interference, ensuring quality at every stage of the audio chain.

Sine Wave

Sine is a curved, flowing wave known for its smooth sound.

Single

A Single is an individual song recording (a track) to be featured by a Record Label for radio, television, and digital broadcast and broader related promotion.

As physical vinyl Records, singles were 7” in diameter and played on a record player at 45 RPM. Longer playing versions of singles were sometimes made available as 45 RPM, 12” vinyl.  Singles were also released in other configurations and formats.

Currently, physical Singles are rarely sold, but Digital Singles are typically released.

A Single is commonly defined in a Recording Contract as a Record that contains a maximum of two or three Master Recordings. Apart from a Digital Single, a Single typically pays a lower Artist Royalty rate than an album will.

A single is a standalone music release, typically featuring one main track, which may include additional tracks like remixes, instrumentals, or B-sides. Singles are often released to promote an album, gain airplay, or generate buzz for an artist, serving as a key tool in music marketing and distribution.

Characteristics of a Single

1. Length:
   • Usually shorter than an album or EP, with one primary track intended to capture attention quickly.
2. Focus Track:
   • The single’s title track is often the centerpiece, designed to be catchy and accessible to a wide audience.
3. Release Formats:
   • Traditionally issued on physical media like vinyl, CDs, or cassettes.
   • In the digital era, singles are predominantly distributed via streaming platforms and digital download stores.

Types of Singles

1. Lead Single:
   • The first track released from an upcoming album to generate anticipation.
2. Standalone Single:
   • A track not associated with any album, often used for experimentation or special occasions.
3. Double A-Side Single:
   • Features two tracks, both promoted equally.
4. Remix Single:
   • Includes alternative versions of a track, such as remixes or collaborations.

Purpose of Releasing Singles

1. Promotion:
   • Introduces new music to audiences, radio stations, and streaming playlists.
2. Fan Engagement:
   • Keeps listeners engaged between larger projects like albums or EPs.
3. Market Testing:
   • Gauges audience reaction to specific songs or styles before committing to a larger release.

Historical Context

• Vinyl Era: Singles were originally distributed as 7-inch records with an A-side (main track) and B-side (secondary track).
• Digital Era: Singles are now released directly to streaming platforms, often accompanied by music videos and social media campaigns.

Famous Singles

• “Billie Jean” by Michael Jackson: A lead single that became a massive hit.
• “Rolling in the Deep” by Adele: Helped launch her global career.
• “Old Town Road” by Lil Nas X: A viral standalone single that topped charts worldwide.

Singles are a cornerstone of music releases, offering artists a powerful way to showcase their work, reach new audiences, and maintain relevance in the fast-paced music industry.

Single-song agreement

A Single-Song Agreement is a Publishing Contract, between a Publisher and a Songwriter (or Songwriters) explicitly for just one song.

Single-Song Agreements might not see the songwriter being paid anything, or being paid only a small amount, typically to cover demo recording costs.

Single-Song Agreements are often a first step towards becoming a full-time staff writer, contracted to write songs for the Publisher.

Sizzle Cymbal

A sizzle cymbal is a type of cymbal used in drum kits and percussion setups, characterized by its sustained, shimmering sound created by adding rivets, chains, or other materials that vibrate against the cymbal when struck. It produces a distinctive “sizzling” effect, adding texture and depth to a drummer’s sound palette.

Characteristics of a Sizzle Cymbal

1. Construction:
   • Rivets or small metal objects are attached around the edge or underside of the cymbal.
   • Some sizzle cymbals feature pre-drilled holes for rivets, while others rely on external chains or clips that can be removed or adjusted.
2. Sound:
   • The vibrating rivets or chains create a prolonged, metallic buzzing or shimmering effect.
   • Works well for both subtle, sustained effects in softer music and pronounced accents in louder genres.

Types of Sizzle Cymbals

1. Riveted Sizzle Cymbals:
   • Permanently fixed rivets create a consistent sizzle effect.
2. Chain-Effect Sizzle Cymbals:
   • A chain or bead strand can be draped over the cymbal for a customizable sizzle.
3. Crash-Ride Sizzle Cymbals:
   • Versatile cymbals that combine the explosive quality of crash cymbals with the sustained shimmer of a sizzle effect.

Uses of Sizzle Cymbals

1. Jazz:
   • Commonly used in swing and bebop for its warm, sustained shimmer, enhancing smooth ride patterns.
2. Ballads:
   • Adds a dreamy, atmospheric quality to slower, softer songs.
3. Film and Soundtracks:
   • Used for creating ambient or dramatic effects.

Famous Sizzle Cymbal Users

• Papa Jo Jones: A jazz drummer who popularized sizzle cymbals in swing music.
• Elvin Jones: Frequently used sizzle cymbals to create atmospheric textures in his drumming.

Care and Maintenance

• Regular cleaning ensures rivets or chains don’t corrode or accumulate debris.
• If using a chain, ensure it is secure but removable for sound flexibility.

The sizzle cymbal is a unique and expressive tool that enhances a drummer’s ability to add nuance, texture, and atmosphere to their music.

Slide Guitar

Using a device other than fingers to press the strings on a traditional guitar, beer bottles, metal or glass cylinders over the finger for example. “Open tuning” is used a lot for this kind of thing. The true description is actually for a “Laptop Steel” guitar. One made for this purpose.

SMPTE

Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers.

SMPTE also refers to a common standard for measurement of Intermodulation distortion (IM) and a reference code for the identification of film or video frames.

SMPTE code is often used for the synchronization of two or more audio playback devices. See SMPTE Time Code.

SMPTE -LTC

Longitudinal or Linear Time Code refers to SMPTE striped along the tape track and is common for tape machines.

SMPTE -VITC

Vertical Interval Time Code, a.k.a “vitsee”, means SMPTE timecode that is placed into the space between video frames. Once “burned in” between frames, it is called BITC or “bitsee”.

SMPTE Time Code

Frame edge lock for audio and video equipment. SMPTE is calculated in:

Hours:Minutes:Seconds:Frames

Societies

Performing Rights Societies in the United States and Canada, and to Performing Rights/Mechanical Rights societies in the rest of the world.

Society of European Stage Authors and Composers/SESAC

An American performing rights organization (PRO) that historically represented works published by European companies.

Soft Synth

A soft synth (short for software synthesizer) is a virtual instrument that generates and manipulates sound through software rather than hardware. Soft synths replicate the capabilities of traditional hardware synthesizers and often expand on them, offering powerful tools for sound design, composition, and music production within a digital environment.

How Soft Synths Work

• Soft synths run as standalone applications or as plugins (e.g., VST, AU, AAX) within a DAW (Digital Audio Workstation) like Ableton Live, Logic Pro, or FL Studio.
• They use digital algorithms to generate sound, often emulating synthesis methods like subtractive, additive, FM, or wavetable synthesis.
• Sounds can be controlled via MIDI keyboards, controllers, or programmed directly within the software.

Advantages of Soft Synths

1. Cost-Effective:
   • Generally more affordable than hardware synthesizers.
2. Versatility:
   • Offer a wide range of presets and customizable sounds.
3. Portability:
   • No physical equipment required, making them ideal for mobile and home studios.
4. Integration:
   • Easily integrates with DAWs for seamless production and automation.

Types of Soft Synths

1. Analog Emulations:
   • Simulate classic hardware synths like the Minimoog, Jupiter-8, or Prophet-5 (e.g., Arturia Analog Lab).
2. FM Synths:
   • Digital synths using frequency modulation, such as Native Instruments FM8.
3. Wavetable Synths:
   • Generate sound using pre-recorded waveforms (e.g., Serum, Ableton Wavetable).
4. Granular Synths:
   • Process audio into tiny “grains” for unique textures (e.g., Omnisphere).

Uses of Soft Synths

• Sound Design: Creating custom tones for film, games, or music.
• Composition: Offering a variety of sounds for creating melodies, basslines, and harmonies.
• Live Performance: Used in laptop-based setups with MIDI controllers.

Popular Soft Synths

• Serum by Xfer Records: Known for its intuitive interface and advanced wavetable synthesis.
• Massive by Native Instruments: Widely used in electronic music for its powerful sound design.
• Sylenth1 by LennarDigital: Favored for its analog-style warmth and usability.

Soft synths are an indispensable tool in modern music production, enabling artists to explore limitless sonic possibilities from the convenience of a computer.

Soft Ticket / Hard Ticket

If you pay for a ticket for a festival, casino, fair, etc. Which is for an event that is larger than the concert alone, with a number of things that are attractions beyond seeing a specific artist, then you have bought a Soft Ticket.

If you pay for a ticket to see a specific artist at a specific physical venue, such as a concert hall, stadium, amphitheater, arena, etc, you have bought a Hard Ticket.

Solfege

Solfege is a system of vocal exercises and syllables used to teach pitch, sight-singing, and ear training in music. Each note in a scale is assigned a specific syllable, making it easier for singers to internalize pitch relationships and develop a strong sense of melody and harmony.

The solfege system is widely used in music education, especially for beginners, as it provides a clear and structured way to understand musical scales and intervals.

Solfege Syllables

In the fixed-do or movable-do system, the seven syllables for the diatonic scale are:

1. Do
2. Re
3. Mi
4. Fa
5. Sol (or So)
6. La
7. Ti (or Si in some regions)

After Ti, the pattern repeats with the next higher Do.

Fixed-Do vs. Movable-Do

1. Fixed-Do
   • Assigns “Do” to the note C, regardless of the key.
   • Commonly used in countries with a classical music tradition, such as France or Italy.
2. Movable-Do
   • “Do” represents the tonic (first note) of any key. For example, in the key of G major, “Do” corresponds to G.
   • Popular in English-speaking countries for teaching functional harmony and ear training.

Use of Solfege

1. Ear Training
   • Helps singers recognize and reproduce pitches accurately.
2. Sight-Singing
   • Facilitates the ability to sing from written music without prior rehearsal.
3. Interval Training
   • Teaches the relationships between notes, improving melodic and harmonic understanding.
4. Improvisation
   • Aids musicians in navigating scales and creating melodies.

Solfege Variants

• The Chromatic Scale uses additional syllables for sharps and flats, such as Di, Ri, and Fi, to account for every semitone.

Solfege is a foundational tool in music education, combining vocal practice with theoretical knowledge to build strong, versatile musicianship.

Solo (Mixing Console)

Many mixing consoles provide a feature that allows individual input tracks, groups or a combination of solo signals to be routed to the monitors without other signals AND without altering the main mix signal.

Solo (Song Section)

Solos can be played within a middle eight section, but modern solos can be played using the chords and a basic melody (for melodic based solos) of any of the sections of the song, however, a solo over the bridge or chorus chords is the most common.

A solo is a special song section designed to showcase an instrumentalist, or sometimes more than one instrumentalist. The solo section may use the verse chords, pre-chorus chords, chorus chords or bridge chords, or in blues-derived genres, a solo may be played over a standard backing chord progression.

For some pop songs, the solo performer echoes the same melodies previously sung in other sections of the song, or sometimes a solo instrumentalist will directly echo a phrase sung immediately before in a question-answer format.

In blues-derived or influenced pop songs, the solo performers may improvise a solo.

A solo is a musical section where a single performer takes the spotlight, either playing or singing prominently, often showcasing technical skill, creativity, or emotional expression. Solos can appear in any genre and are a key feature in jazz, rock, classical, pop, and many other styles.

Characteristics of a Solo

1. Focus on One Performer:
   • The soloist is the primary focus, with other instruments providing accompaniment or stepping back entirely.
2. Improvisation (Optional):
   • In genres like jazz and blues, solos are often improvised, while in classical music, they are typically composed and notated.
3. Expressiveness:
   • A solo highlights the performer’s ability to convey emotion, technique, or both.
4. Duration and Placement:
   • Solos can range from a few measures to extended sections and may occur anywhere in a piece, such as an intro, bridge, or outro.

Types of Solos

1. Instrumental Solo:
   • A single instrument is featured, such as a guitar solo in rock music or a violin solo in classical compositions.
2. Vocal Solo:
   • A singer performs unaccompanied or with minimal backing, often in operas, pop ballads, or jazz scat singing.
3. Cadenza:
   • A virtuosic solo passage in classical music, often appearing in concertos and performed without accompaniment.

Famous Solos in Music

• Guitar Solo: “Eruption” by Eddie Van Halen, showcasing rock guitar virtuosity.
• Saxophone Solo: “Take Five” by Paul Desmond, highlighting cool jazz expression.
• Vocal Solo: “Nessun Dorma” by Luciano Pavarotti, a powerful opera aria.

Role of Solos in Music

1. Spotlight Talent:
   • Solos provide an opportunity for performers to shine and demonstrate their abilities.
2. Add Contrast:
   • They often serve as dynamic or emotional contrasts within a piece.
3. Engage the Audience:
   • Solos can captivate listeners and create memorable moments in live or recorded performances.

A solo is both a technical showcase and an emotional journey, making it one of the most expressive and celebrated elements in music.

Sonata

A sonata is a musical composition, typically for a solo instrument or a small ensemble, that follows a structured form over multiple movements. Rooted in Western classical music, the term “sonata” comes from the Italian word sonare, meaning “to sound,” distinguishing it from vocal works.

Sonatas are known for their depth, complexity, and emphasis on instrumental performance, often showcasing the technical and expressive capabilities of the performer.

Key Features of a Sonata

1. Form and Structure
   • A sonata typically has three or four movements, each with its own tempo and character:
     • Fast (e.g., Allegro)
     • Slow (e.g., Adagio)
     • Dance-like (e.g., Minuet or Scherzo)
     • Fast Finale (e.g., Presto)
2. Sonata Form (within the first movement)
   • A specific structure used in many sonatas:
     • Exposition: Introduces two contrasting themes.
     • Development: Explores and varies the themes, often moving through different keys.
     • Recapitulation: Restates the original themes, usually resolving in the home key.
3. Instrumentation
   • Common sonata types include:
     • Piano Sonata: For solo piano (e.g., Beethoven’s “Moonlight Sonata”).
     • Violin Sonata: For violin and piano.
     • Sonata for Other Instruments: Cello, flute, or clarinet, often with piano accompaniment.

Historical Context

1. Baroque Era (1600–1750):
   • Early sonatas (e.g., by Corelli) were more flexible, divided into contrasting sections rather than formal movements.
2. Classical Era (1750–1820):
   • The sonata form became more codified with composers like Mozart and Haydn.
3. Romantic Era (1820–1900):
   • Expanded emotional and technical expression in works by Beethoven, Schumann, and Chopin.
4. Modern Era (1900–Present):
   • Composers like Prokofiev and Shostakovich brought new harmonic and rhythmic innovations.

Significance

The sonata remains one of the most important forms in classical music, blending technical brilliance with emotional depth. It has influenced countless compositions and continues to inspire performers and audiences alike.

Song Evaluation

This is feedback or critique from a music industry professional (such as another songwriter). The average cost on the open market is $30 to $200 per song, depending on the level of the evaluator.

Song Form

Song Form is basically the structure of the song. There are a number of standard song forms.

• Strophic (chorus form)
• Thirty-two bar
• Verse-chorus
• Twelve Bar Blues
• Through-composed

See Song Structure

Song Plugger

Song pluggers can work in a few areas, but their main area of work is as a song pitcher (song salesman) for a Publisher.

Their primary job is to pitch, or plug, the Publisher’s songs to Artists, Music Producers, Movie/TV/Ad Producers, A&R, etc.

Song Position Pointer (SPP)

Working in conjunction with Midi Clock, the SPP provides information about the current beat and measure used in a song or sequence. This allows the user to rewind, fast forward, etc. a master device while remaining synchronized with a slave device.

Song Structure

Song structure refers to the arrangement and organization of sections within a song. It provides a framework that guides the flow of music and lyrics, creating a sense of progression, balance, and emotional impact. While structures can vary widely across genres and styles, most songs follow a combination of repeating and contrasting sections.

Common Sections in Song Structure

1. Intro
   • Sets the tone and mood of the song, leading into the main body. Often instrumental and shorter than other sections.
2. Verse
   • Tells the story or conveys the main narrative. Lyrics usually change with each verse while maintaining a consistent melody.
3. Chorus
   • The most memorable and repeated section, containing the song’s central message or “hook.” The melody and lyrics of the chorus usually stay the same.
4. Pre-Chorus (Optional)
   • A transitional section that builds tension between the verse and the chorus, often featuring a rising melody.
5. Bridge
   • A contrasting section, typically occurring later in the song, that introduces new musical or lyrical ideas. It provides variety and keeps the listener engaged.
6. Outro
   • Concludes the song, either by fading out, repeating a phrase, or resolving musically.

Popular Song Structures

1. Verse-Chorus Form:
   • Verse → Chorus → Verse → Chorus → Bridge → Chorus (common in pop, rock, and country).
2. ABABCB:
   • Verse (A) → Chorus (B) → Verse (A) → Chorus (B) → Bridge (C) → Chorus (B).
3. 12-Bar Blues:
   • Based on a repeating 12-bar chord progression (common in blues and early rock).
4. Through-Composed:
   • No repeated sections; every part is unique (common in classical and progressive music).

Why Song Structure Matters

• Engagement: Helps maintain listener interest by balancing repetition and variety.
• Emotional Impact: Enhances the delivery of the song’s message and dynamics.
• Memorability: A strong structure makes songs easier to follow and remember.

Song structure is a critical element of songwriting, shaping how a song connects with its audience and unfolds its artistic intent.

See Song Form Overview, AAA Song Form, AB Song Form, ABC Song Form, AAB Song Form, AABA Song Form, Extended Song Forms, Compound Song Forms, and Song Building Blocks.

Songwriter Agreement

A Songwriter Agreement is a very common type of Publishing Contract.

In a Songwriter Agreement, the songwriter agrees that the copyright of a song, some songs, or all songs they create from the start date, will become the property of the Publisher, subject to the terms stipulated within the Songwriter Agreement. As part of this, the Music Publisher is granted exclusive Administration Rights of the song or songs.

In return, the Publisher pays the songwriter Songwriter Royalties and sometimes an Advances or Advances. The Advance, or Advances, will be recoupable from future Songwriter Royalties. Except for Sheet Music, songwriters are typically entitled to 50% of the Publisher’s receipts as songwriter’s royalties, with the exception of income derived from Sheet Music sales.

Performing Rights Societies pay out income from Blanket Licenses directly to Songwriters and Publishers on a periodic basis. Income paid out is approximately:

• 50% Songwriters Royalties
• 50% Publishers Royalties

Typically, Sheet Music royalties were calculated based on a percentage of the wholesale price.

Songwriter’s Share/Writer’s Share

See Songwriter Royalties under the Songwriter Agreement and see Performing Rights Society.

Sonority

Sonority refers to the quality, richness, and texture of sound in music. It describes how sounds are perceived when they are combined, whether in harmony, melody, or orchestration. Sonority encompasses the tonal character of instruments, voices, and the overall blend within a musical context, often highlighting the expressive and emotional aspects of a composition.

Key Aspects of Sonority

1. Tone Quality (Timbre):
   • The distinct character of an individual instrument or voice. For example, a violin’s sonority differs from that of a trumpet, even if they play the same pitch.
2. Harmonic Blending:
   • The way multiple notes or instruments interact to create a particular texture or effect. Rich, consonant sonorities (like a major chord) contrast with dissonant, tense ones.
3. Dynamic Range:
   • The interplay between loud and soft sounds affects the perceived depth and resonance of the music.
4. Orchestration and Instrumentation:
   • Composers and arrangers use specific combinations of instruments to craft unique sonorities. For example, the lush sonority of a full orchestra contrasts with the sparse sonority of a solo piano.

Examples of Sonority in Music

1. Choral Music:
   • The sonority of a well-blended choir creates a warm, unified sound.
2. Orchestral Music:
   • The rich sonority of string sections combined with woodwinds and brass in a symphony evokes grandeur or intimacy.
3. Modern Genres:
   • In jazz, the sonority of muted brass or lush piano chords defines the style’s character.
   • In electronic music, producers manipulate sonority using synthesizers and effects to craft unique textures.

Importance of Sonority

• Emotional Expression:
  • Different sonorities evoke distinct feelings, from the bright and cheerful to the dark and haunting.
• Contrast and Interest:
  • Composers use changes in sonority to maintain the listener’s engagement.
• Atmosphere Creation:
  • The sonority of a piece shapes its overall mood and ambiance.

Sonority is a fundamental concept in music that enriches compositions, defining how sounds interact and resonate to create powerful auditory experiences.

Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format (S/PDIF)

Digital Audio specification a conforming to the AES/EBU consumer standard.

S/PDIF is a Digital Recording format that allows the high-speed transfer of two channels of digital audio. Conforming equipment provides a S/PDIF interface in the form of either a Digital Audio Coaxial RCA connector or an optical connection as either a TosLink or a Mini Optical connector.

Sound Design

Sound design is the art and practice of creating, shaping, and manipulating audio to enhance a musical composition, film, video game, or any multimedia project. It involves generating new sounds, modifying existing ones, and blending them to achieve a specific aesthetic, mood, or functional purpose.

Key Elements of Sound Design

1. Sound Creation:
   • Generating sounds from scratch using synthesizers, samplers, or field recordings.
   • Techniques like granular synthesis, sampling, and resynthesis are common in this process.
2. Sound Manipulation:
   • Altering sounds through processing tools such as EQ, reverb, delay, distortion, and modulation effects to fit a desired tone or texture.
3. Sound Layering:
   • Combining multiple sounds to create a richer, more complex audio experience.
   • For example, layering a bass synth with a sub-bass for depth and impact.
4. Sound Integration:
   • Placing sounds within a specific context, such as a mix or multimedia project, to achieve a cohesive result.

Applications of Sound Design

1. Music Production:
   • Crafting unique sounds for instruments, effects, and atmospheres in a song.
   • Examples include designing custom synth patches or creating textures for ambient music.
2. Film and TV:
   • Developing sound effects, foley (replicated environmental sounds), and immersive audio for cinematic storytelling.
   • Example: The lightsaber sound in Star Wars is a classic example of innovative sound design.
3. Video Games:
   • Creating interactive audio environments, such as footsteps, weapon sounds, and atmospheric effects that respond dynamically to player actions.
4. Theatre and Live Performances:
   • Designing soundscapes and audio cues that enhance dramatic or musical performances.
5. Advertising and Branding:
   • Crafting sonic logos or audio branding elements for commercials and corporate identities.

Tools for Sound Design

• Software: DAWs like Ableton Live, Logic Pro, and Pro Tools; plugins such as Serum, Massive, and Omnisphere.
• Hardware: Modular synthesizers, samplers, and field recording equipment.
• Foley Equipment: Tools to create organic, real-world sound effects.

Why Sound Design Matters

• Emotional Impact: Creates immersive and evocative audio experiences that resonate with the audience.
• Originality: Distinguishes a project with unique, recognizable soundscapes.
• Storytelling: Enhances narrative by aligning audio elements with visual or thematic cues.

Sound design is a critical skill for modern creators, blending technical expertise and artistic vision to shape the auditory experience in music and multimedia projects.

Sound Engineer

Generally, the person in charge of making the sound for show work. There can be many different specific roles for a sound engineer.

Sound Recording

Sound recordings are works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds onto a media, without regard for the material objects, in which the recording is embodied.

Media is typically:

• Disks
• Tapes
• Phonorecords
• Digital Storage

Sounds accompanying a motion picture or other audiovisual work are not included.

SoundExchange

SoundExchange is a non-profit Performance Rights Organization (PRO). It collects statutory royalties from:

• Satellite radio
• Internet radio
• Cable TV music channels
• Streaming platforms

In the USA, the Copyright Royalty Board entrusted SoundExchange as the sole entity in the United States that can collect and distribute digital performance royalties on behalf of:

• Featured recording Artists
• Master rights owners (Record Labels etc.)
• Independent Artists record and own their masters.

Before 1995, the owner of a Copyright in a Sound Recording did not have any performance rights under U.S. Copyright Law. Sound Recordings now have limited performance rights.

www.soundexchange.com

Soundproofing

Soundproofing refers to the process of reducing or preventing sound from entering or exiting a space by controlling the transmission of sound waves. It is essential in music studios, rehearsal rooms, and performance spaces to minimize external noise and maintain optimal acoustic conditions for recording and performing.

How Soundproofing Works

1. Blocking Sound Transmission:
   • Prevents sound from traveling between spaces by using dense, non-porous materials that impede sound waves.
2. Absorbing Sound:
   • Reduces echoes and reverberation within a room by using materials that absorb sound energy, improving clarity.
3. Isolating Structures:
   • Decoupling walls, floors, and ceilings to stop vibrations from transferring sound between connected surfaces.

Common Soundproofing Techniques

1. Mass:
   • Adding heavy materials like drywall, mass-loaded vinyl (MLV), or concrete to block sound.
2. Damping:
   • Using materials like acoustic foam, green glue, or rubber to reduce vibrations and dissipate sound energy.
3. Sealing Air Gaps:
   • Applying weatherstripping, acoustic caulking, or door sweeps to close gaps where sound can leak.
4. Decoupling:
   • Building floating floors, double walls, or resilient channels to physically separate surfaces, minimizing vibration transfer.
5. Sound Absorption:
   • Installing acoustic panels, bass traps, and ceiling clouds to absorb sound reflections and control room acoustics.

Uses of Soundproofing

1. Recording Studios:
   • Ensures clean audio recordings by isolating the studio from outside noise and preventing sound leakage.
2. Rehearsal Rooms:
   • Reduces noise disturbance to neighbors or adjacent rooms during practice sessions.
3. Home Studios:
   • Allows musicians and producers to work at home without disrupting others or being affected by external noise.
4. Theaters and Performance Venues:
   • Keeps external sounds out and ensures a high-quality listening experience for the audience.

Why Soundproofing is Important

• Improved Audio Quality: Prevents unwanted noise and ensures clarity in recordings and performances.
• Privacy: Protects sensitive content or loud music from disturbing others.
• Professionalism: Creates a controlled environment for production and performance.

Soundproofing is a crucial element of audio and music production, ensuring that sound is isolated and optimized for creative and technical excellence.

SoundScan

SoundScan, Nielsen, is mainly Brick and Mortar Stores and online retailers in the United States. Nielsen SoundScan collates Record sales SoundScan is used by Billboard to create its album charts for album sales in the United States.

Nielsen monitors radio airplay, online streaming, and music consumer behavior. Nielsen tracks what music people are buying in-store and digitally.

They compile data from more retail outlets globally. The sales info helps:

• Record Labels
• Publishers
• Artists
• Artist Management
• Performance Rights Organizations

It helps them understand what albums, singles, and music videos people are buying, and where they’re buying them from.

Nielsen collects point-of-sale (POS) data, weekly, in 19 countries across the U.S., Canada, and Europe.

Nielsen’s collated data is a primary source for the Billboard charts. It is the standard for music industry measurement.

Register a title with SoundScan:

https://titlereg.soundscan.com/soundscantitlereg/

Source Music

Relating to a Score, Source Music is music that is linked to something that is occurring on screen.

Example

When an actor is depicted on screen as singing a song or playing an instrument

Example

Music is depicted on screen as coming out of a radio or some other on-screen source.

Special Market Department

This is a department within a Record Label that deals with the Master Recording licensing.

It also seeks to exploit the Record Label Back Catalog.

Special Packaging Charges

These are additional costs incurred by a Record Label for the packaging of a Physical Record that is more elaborate than the standard record package.

Under the terms of many recording agreements, the Label reserves the right to charge the artist for special packaging costs.

Special Packaging Costs have nothing to do with Packaging Charges.

Spider

A small piece of plastic that holds CDs in a card case.

Spill

This is the term applied to acoustic interference from unwanted source sounds.

Spotting

Spotting is the process where the Score Composer and the Movie Director view the final cut of the movie to identify the exact points in the movie where music will be needed.

Staccato

Staccato is a musical articulation that indicates notes should be played in a short, detached, and separated manner. It contrasts with legato, where notes are played smoothly and connected. The term comes from the Italian word staccare, meaning “to detach.”

In sheet music, staccato is denoted by a dot placed directly above or below the notehead, depending on the stem’s direction.

Characteristics of Staccato

1. Short Duration
   • Each staccato note is typically played much shorter than its full value, with silence between notes.
2. Crisp Attack
   • Notes are articulated sharply, giving a sense of precision and clarity.
3. Dynamic Variability
   • While staccato is often associated with lightness, it can also be forceful depending on the context and dynamics.

How to Perform Staccato

• On Piano: Quickly release the keys after striking them to create a distinct separation between notes.
• On String Instruments: Use short, controlled bow strokes or lift the bow off the string after each note.
• On Wind Instruments: Use a light and quick tonguing technique to create detached sounds.
• On Percussion: Strike the instrument sharply and allow the sound to decay naturally.

Musical Context of Staccato

• Expression: Adds energy, playfulness, or drama to a piece of music.
• Contrast: Often alternates with legato sections to create variety and interest.
• Genres: Used across all musical styles, from classical and jazz to pop and electronic music.

Examples of Staccato Use

• In classical music, Mozart frequently employed staccato to create lively and elegant phrases.
• In jazz, staccato is common in syncopated melodies and horn lines.

Staccato is a versatile articulation that enhances the texture and character of music, giving performers a tool to convey clarity and emotion.

Staff Writer

A Staff Writer is a Songwriter who is under contract and is advanced money by a publisher to write songs exclusively for that publisher.

Stage Monitor

A stage monitor is a speaker system used in live performances to provide performers with a clear mix of the music or vocals being played. Unlike front-of-house speakers, which project sound toward the audience, stage monitors are directed toward the performers, ensuring they can hear themselves and their fellow musicians clearly.

Types of Stage Monitors

1. Floor Monitors:
   • Wedge-shaped speakers placed on the stage floor, angled upward toward the performers.
2. In-Ear Monitors (IEMs):
   • Personal monitoring systems where sound is delivered directly to the performer’s ears via earbuds or headphones.
3. Side-Fill Monitors:
   • Larger speakers positioned on the sides of the stage to provide additional coverage, especially for large ensembles or groups.

Why Stage Monitors Are Important

• Clarity for Performers:
  • Helps musicians hear their parts, pitch, rhythm, and timing accurately, especially in loud environments.
• Communication:
  • Essential for synchronized performance among band members, singers, and conductors.
• Personalized Mixes:
  • Allows each performer to hear the specific instruments or vocals they need most, such as a singer emphasizing their voice or a drummer focusing on the bass guitar.

Common Uses of Stage Monitors

1. Bands and Vocalists:
   • Ensure vocalists can hear their pitch and accompaniment while allowing instrumentalists to stay in time.
2. Orchestras and Ensembles:
   • Provide critical audio cues for complex arrangements.
3. Theater and Live Events:
   • Actors, presenters, or performers rely on monitors for cues and background audio.

Challenges and Solutions

1. Feedback:
   • Loud monitor levels can cause audio feedback. This is managed through proper microphone placement and EQ adjustments.
2. Volume Control:
   • Balancing monitor levels is critical to avoid overwhelming performers or the audience with stage noise.

Popular Brands for Stage Monitors

• Floor Monitors: JBL, Yamaha, QSC.
• In-Ear Monitors: Shure, Sennheiser, Westone.

Stage monitors are an essential part of live sound systems, ensuring performers can deliver their best in any setting by hearing exactly what they need on stage.

Stagecraft

Stagecraft refers to the skills, techniques, and practices involved in delivering a compelling and professional live performance. It encompasses everything a performer does on stage to engage the audience, communicate emotion, and create a memorable experience beyond the music itself.

Stagecraft combines artistic expression, technical awareness, and physical presence, making it an essential component for musicians, singers, and performers.

Key Elements of Stagecraft

1. Stage Presence
   • The ability to captivate an audience through confidence, energy, and charisma.
   • Includes body language, facial expressions, and overall demeanor.
2. Movement and Choreography
   • How a performer moves on stage, including planned choreography or spontaneous gestures that align with the music.
3. Interaction with the Audience
   • Engaging the crowd through eye contact, verbal communication, or call-and-response moments.
4. Use of Space
   • Effective positioning on stage, balancing movement to maintain visual interest without being chaotic.
5. Technical Awareness
   • Understanding microphone technique, monitor placement, lighting, and other technical aspects that influence the performance.
6. Rehearsal and Preparation
   • Planning and practicing stage cues, transitions, and interactions to ensure a smooth show.
7. Emotional Connection
   • Conveying the emotion of the music authentically to connect with the audience on a deeper level.

Why Stagecraft Matters

• Enhances Performance: Elevates a live show from merely playing music to a dynamic and engaging experience.
• Builds a Connection: Helps artists bond with their audience, fostering loyalty and memorable moments.
• Professionalism: Shows preparedness and attention to detail, essential for building a reputation as a live performer.

Examples in Practice

• Rock Performers: Artists like Freddie Mercury used grand gestures and crowd interaction to create unforgettable shows.
• Singer-Songwriters: Focus on intimacy and storytelling, using subtle movements and genuine expressions.
• Electronic Artists: Combine lighting, visuals, and minimal movement to create an immersive atmosphere.

Stagecraft is a vital aspect of live performance, helping musicians turn their music into an unforgettable experience for their audience.

Statutory Rate / Compulsory Rate

This applies in the USA, not the UK. The statutory rate is not normally paid in full.

In the United States, it means the compulsory Mechanical Royalty rates as set by the Copyright Royalty Board.

See harryfox.com

Stem (Audio)

In music production, an audio stem refers to an individual track or group of tracks that have been consolidated into a single audio file for use in mixing, mastering, or live performances. Stems are often grouped by instrument or element, such as vocals, drums, bass, or synths, and they allow for greater flexibility and control when processing or balancing a mix.

Key Features of Stems

1. Grouped Elements
   • A stem might include all the drum tracks combined (kick, snare, hi-hats) into one file or all vocal harmonies mixed down into a single track.
2. Independent Control
   • Stems give engineers and performers the ability to adjust levels, apply effects, or make corrections to specific parts of a mix without affecting the entire track.
3. High-Quality Format
   • Typically rendered as uncompressed WAV or AIFF files to maintain audio fidelity during further processing.

Common Uses of Stems

1. Mixing and Mastering
   • Stems provide mixing engineers with a more manageable set of tracks to work with, simplifying adjustments while preserving creative decisions made during production.
2. Remixing
   • Stems allow remixers to manipulate specific elements of a song, such as isolating the vocals or reimagining the drum parts.
3. Live Performances
   • DJs and electronic artists often use stems to create live remixes or adapt tracks dynamically during shows.
4. Collaboration
   • Sharing stems between producers or artists ensures they have all the necessary elements to recreate or modify a track.

Stems vs. Multitracks

• Multitracks: Individual recordings for every instrument, vocal, and effect (e.g., separate tracks for kick, snare, hi-hat).
• Stems: Consolidated groups of multitracks (e.g., a single “Drum” stem combining all drum tracks).

Examples of Stems

• Vocals (lead and backing combined).
• Drums (all percussion elements mixed into one file).
• Instrument groups (e.g., strings, synths, or guitars).

Audio stems are a powerful tool in modern music production, balancing efficiency and flexibility, whether for professional studio work or live performances.

Sting

A Sting is a short piece of pre-recorded audio or music that is used during a broadcast as a sound effect or marker.

Streaming

Internet broadcasting of digital audio or video. Typically the audio and video are pre-recorded.

Live broadcast of audio or video is called Live Streaming.

Streaming is the real-time delivery of audio content over the internet without requiring the user to download the file. It has become the dominant method for consuming music globally, revolutionizing the way listeners access and interact with music and how artists distribute and monetize their work.

How Streaming Works

• On-Demand Streaming: Users can select and play specific songs, albums, or playlists (e.g., Spotify, Apple Music).
• Internet Radio: Curated or algorithmic playlists that play continuously, often without user control over specific tracks (e.g., Pandora, Last.fm).
• Live Streaming: Real-time broadcasts of performances, often via platforms like YouTube, Twitch, or specialized apps.

Key Features of Streaming

1. Accessibility
   • Music is stored on servers and delivered to devices via the internet, making it available anywhere with a connection.
2. Subscription Services
   • Many platforms operate on subscription models (e.g., monthly fees for premium access) alongside free, ad-supported versions.
3. Playlists and Algorithms
   • Streaming platforms use algorithms and curated playlists to recommend songs tailored to user preferences.
4. Offline Mode
   • Premium users can download tracks temporarily for offline playback.

Impact on Artists and the Industry

1. Revenue
   • Artists earn royalties based on streams, though per-stream payouts are generally low compared to traditional sales.
2. Exposure
   • Streaming platforms provide a global reach, helping artists gain visibility and build fan bases.
3. Data Insights
   • Platforms provide analytics on listener demographics, locations, and behaviors, aiding in marketing strategies.

Popular Streaming Platforms

• Music-Focused: Spotify, Apple Music, Amazon Music, Tidal, Deezer.
• Video and Music: YouTube, YouTube Music.

Benefits of Streaming

• Convenience and instant access to vast libraries of music.
• Encourages music discovery through curated and algorithmic recommendations.
• Reduces barriers for independent artists to distribute music globally.

Streaming has transformed the music landscape, making it easier than ever for listeners to access their favorite tracks while creating new opportunities and challenges for artists and the industry.

Streaming Royalties

Streaming royalties are payments made to music rights holders (such as artists, songwriters, publishers, and record labels) when their music is streamed on platforms like Spotify, Apple Music, YouTube, and Amazon Music. These royalties are a key source of income in the digital era, generated through subscriptions, ad revenue, or platform-specific models.

Types of Streaming Royalties

1. Performance Royalties:
   • Paid to songwriters and publishers whenever a song is publicly performed, including on streaming platforms.
   • Collected by performance rights organizations (PROs) like ASCAP, BMI, or PRS for Music.
2. Mechanical Royalties:
   • Paid to songwriters and publishers for the reproduction of their music, which includes digital streams.
   • Administered by entities like The Mechanical Licensing Collective (MLC) in the U.S.
3. Master Recording Royalties:
   • Paid to the owners of the sound recording (typically record labels or independent artists) for the use of the recording.

How Streaming Royalties Are Calculated

1. Revenue Pool:
   • A percentage of a platform’s total revenue is allocated to royalties. This pool is shared among all streamed tracks during a specific period.
2. Pro Rata Model:
   • Payments are based on the share of streams an artist’s music receives compared to the platform’s total streams.
3. Payout Rates:
   • Rates vary by platform and are influenced by factors like subscription tiers, ad-supported streams, and geographic markets.
   • Typically measured in fractions of a cent per stream (e.g., $0.003 to $0.005 per stream).

Challenges with Streaming Royalties

1. Low Per-Stream Payouts:
   • Artists and songwriters often need millions of streams to generate significant income.
2. Complex Distribution:
   • Royalties are divided among multiple parties, reducing the share received by individual contributors.
3. Transparency Issues:
   • Many rights holders lack clarity on how royalties are calculated and distributed.

Importance of Streaming Royalties

• Primary Revenue Source:
  • As physical sales decline, streaming royalties are now a major income stream for music creators.
• Global Reach:
  • Provides access to worldwide audiences, helping independent artists monetize their music.
• Evolving Models:
  • Emerging systems, like user-centric payment models, aim to address fairness concerns in royalty distribution.

Streaming royalties represent the financial backbone of the modern music industry, connecting artists and rights holders to revenue opportunities in the digital age.

Strophe

A strophe is a basic block, made up of multiple phrases. In pop music, it is a primary focus within AABA-form and strophic-form songs.

Strophic

Strophic is a large song structure, where the same strophe is repeated throughout the song . For this reason Strophic form is also known as AAA form or One-part form. Strophic form is common in 1950s–1960s in blues and rock and roll songs and even early hip hop. It is less common from the 1970s onwards where verse chorus (AB) took over as the dominant song form in pop genres.

Many strophic songs include a refrain within each strophe.

Strophic songs can also include auxilliary song sections like an intro, outro or coda.

Studio Monitor

Studio monitors are specialized speakers designed for accurate and uncolored audio reproduction in recording, mixing, and mastering environments. Unlike consumer-grade speakers, which often enhance certain frequencies (like bass or treble), studio monitors aim to provide a flat frequency response, allowing producers and engineers to hear sound as it truly is.

Key Features of Studio Monitors

1. Flat Frequency Response:
   • Deliver neutral sound without boosting or cutting any specific frequency range.
2. Nearfield Design:
   • Typically designed for close listening, reducing the influence of room acoustics on the sound.
3. Precision and Clarity:
   • Reveal subtle details in recordings, making them ideal for critical listening and fine adjustments.
4. Power Options:
   • Active Monitors: Include built-in amplifiers for convenience.
   • Passive Monitors: Require an external amplifier to function.

Why Studio Monitors Are Important

• Accurate Mixing:
  • Ensures mixes translate well across different playback systems, such as headphones, car stereos, and home speakers.
• Critical Listening:
  • Allows producers to identify and correct flaws in a recording.
• Professional Sound:
  • Essential for achieving a polished, professional-quality mix.

Placement and Setup

1. Positioning:
   • Typically placed at ear level and angled toward the listener to form an equilateral triangle.
2. Isolation:
   • Using monitor stands or isolation pads prevents vibrations from distorting the sound.
3. Room Treatment:
   • Acoustic treatment (e.g., bass traps and foam panels) optimizes the listening environment for accuracy.

Popular Studio Monitor Brands

• Yamaha (e.g., HS Series)
• KRK (e.g., Rokit Series)
• Adam Audio (e.g., A Series)
• Genelec
• JBL (e.g., LSR Series)

Applications of Studio Monitors

• Recording Studios: To monitor and adjust live performances or voiceovers.
• Mixing and Mastering: To fine-tune levels, EQ, and effects for a balanced sound.
• Home Studios: Affordable models cater to independent musicians and content creators.

Studio monitors are a critical tool in music production, offering the accuracy and reliability needed to create professional-quality audio in any recording environment.

Sub-publisher

A Sub-publisher is a Publisher in a foreign country who administers rights and collects fees and royalties in one or more territories. This arrangement is governed by a Sub-publishing Agreement.

Sub-publishing Agreement

A type of Publishing Agreement where Administration Rights are granted to a foreign Sub-publisher. Typically this is in exchange for the payment of royalties and sometimes Advances by the Sub-publisher.

Submix

A submix is a grouping of multiple audio tracks combined into a single channel within a mixing session. It allows for easier control and processing of related sounds, such as drums, vocals, or background instruments, by treating them as a single unit.

Submixes are commonly used in both studio recording and live sound setups to simplify workflow and ensure a cohesive mix.

How a Submix Works

1. Track Grouping
   • Individual tracks (e.g., kick, snare, hi-hats, toms) are routed to a submix channel (e.g., “Drum Submix”).
2. Unified Control
   • The submix channel allows the engineer to adjust volume, apply effects, or pan for the entire group without affecting individual tracks.
3. Signal Flow
   • Audio is routed from individual tracks → submix channel → master output.

Uses of a Submix

1. Simplifying the Mix
   • Reduces the number of channels to manage during mixing or live performance.
   • Helps keep large sessions organized.
2. Group Processing
   • Allows for consistent effects application (e.g., reverb or compression) across related tracks.
   • Example: Adding a subtle reverb to an entire vocal group for uniform ambiance.
3. Dynamic Adjustments
   • Quickly adjust the overall level of a group without changing individual track balances.
   • Example: Turning down all backing vocals together during a loud chorus.
4. Parallel Processing
   • Submixes can be duplicated to apply parallel compression, EQ, or distortion, enhancing the sound while maintaining control over the original mix.

Examples of Common Submixes

• Drums Submix: Combines all percussion tracks.
• Vocals Submix: Groups lead and background vocals.
• Instrument Submix: Collects strings, synths, or guitars.

Submixing is a powerful technique that streamlines mixing workflows, improves efficiency, and enhances the overall cohesion of a production. It’s a fundamental skill for both beginner and professional audio engineers.

Subtractive Synthesis

This type of synthesis takes a broadband signal, sometimes in conjunction with some form of periodic signal, and subtracts frequencies in order to leave the desired output signal.

Suggested Retail Price/SRLP 

This is the retail price suggested by a Distributor for their customers to use when re-selling the Distributor’s Records to the end customer.

Record Labels used to use the SRLP when working out the Royalty Base Price.

Currently, most Record Labels use the wholesale price (PPD) when working out Artist Royalties, in lieu of the SRLP.

Sunset Clause

After a set period of time, an individual’s commission or another percentage of income, royalty, or other payment can be reduced or eliminated.

Super Fan

A person who has a very strong, extreme, or obsessive admiration for an artist.

While there are super fans that stalk artists, most simply support their chosen artist in every way that they can find, from purchasing every product they can find (even multiple purchases of the same product), providing financial support through donations and other mechanisms, to becoming Street Team or Virtual Street Team member, or acting as a sort of social media champion.

While there can be Super Fans in many different industries, Music does forge particularly devoted fans. Music Marketers encourage and cultivate the development of Fans into Super Fans. It inspires them towards high levels of engagement.

Super Fans don’t just buy an album or a T-shirt. They search out rare albums, limited editions, signed merchandise, special t-shirts, and close contact including behind-the-scenes insights. True superfans want to be seen to be Super Fans, and they are often keen to share their experiences with people who may not be Super Fans but who will really appreciate them.

Super Fans run volunteer news sites about their favorite artist. They arrange streams and playlists of popular songs to try to help their chosen artist to outshine other artists. They are often involved in getting the word out about amazing bands that no one has ever heard of. Super Fans are the central hub of social media music marketing. They often do a better job than the music promotion professionals because they are highly motivated, determined, very knowledgable, deeply interested, and highly engaged.

Sustain

Sustain refers to the duration and consistency of a note or sound after it has been initiated. It is the period during which a note is held or resonates before it fades away. Sustain is a key aspect of musical expression and is influenced by the instrument, playing technique, and sound design.

Sustain in Instruments

1. String Instruments (e.g., guitar, violin):
   • Sustain occurs as the string vibrates. Techniques like bowing or using a sustain pedal can extend this period.
2. Keyboard Instruments (e.g., piano):
   • Sustain is achieved by holding a key or using a sustain pedal, which lifts the dampers and allows the strings to vibrate freely.
3. Wind Instruments (e.g., flute, trumpet):
   • Sustain depends on the player’s ability to maintain airflow or embouchure.
4. Percussion (e.g., cymbals, drums):
   • Sustain is the ringing or resonance after striking. It can be controlled by muting or using dampeners.
5. Synthesizers:
   • Sustain is part of the ADSR (Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release) envelope, representing the level at which a sound is held while the key is pressed.

Impact of Sustain on Music

• Expressiveness: Sustained notes can add emotion, atmosphere, or dramatic effect.
• Legato Playing: Instruments with long sustain are ideal for smooth, connected melodies.
• Contrast: Combining sustained and short, staccato notes creates rhythmic and dynamic variety.

Tools to Enhance Sustain

• Effects Pedals: Sustain or compression pedals for electric guitars.
• Sustain Pedal: Common in pianos and keyboards.
• Reverb and Delay Effects: Add the illusion of extended sustain in recordings or live performances.

Genres Where Sustain is Prominent

• Ambient and Classical: Long, resonant notes build atmosphere.
• Rock and Metal: Guitar sustain is essential for solos and power chords.
• Jazz and Ballads: Instruments with rich sustain enhance expressive phrasing.

Sustain is a fundamental element of sound that shapes the texture, mood, and character of music across all styles and instruments.

Sustain Pedal

The sustain pedal (also known as the damper pedal) is a foot-operated device on pianos, keyboards, and digital instruments that allows notes to continue sounding even after the keys are released. It is one of the most essential tools for adding expressiveness, smoothness, and complexity to a performance.

How the Sustain Pedal Works

1. Acoustic Piano:
   • When the sustain pedal is pressed, it lifts the dampers off the strings, allowing them to vibrate freely and prolong the sound.
   • Notes blend together, creating a legato or ambient effect.
2. Digital Instruments:
   • Emulates the effect of lifting dampers electronically, often with additional features like half-pedaling for nuanced control.

Functions of the Sustain Pedal

1. Sustaining Notes:
   • Prolongs the sound of notes, allowing for smoother transitions between chords or melodies.
2. Creating Atmosphere:
   • Adds resonance and richness to the overall sound, especially in slower, expressive pieces.
3. Blending Harmonies:
   • Allows overlapping harmonies to create a fuller, more immersive texture.
4. Artistic Expression:
   • Enables dynamic phrasing and emotional depth in a performance.

Techniques for Using the Sustain Pedal

1. Half-Pedaling:
   • Pressing the pedal halfway allows for partial dampening, creating a subtler sustain effect.
2. Pedal Timing:
   • Releasing and pressing the pedal at precise moments prevents muddiness and ensures clean harmonies.
3. Selective Pedaling:
   • Used strategically to sustain specific notes or chords without over-saturating the sound.

Applications of the Sustain Pedal

1. Classical Music:
   • Essential for achieving the expressive nuances in works by composers like Chopin and Debussy.
2. Contemporary Music:
   • Widely used in pop, jazz, and film music to enhance warmth and depth.
3. Digital Keyboards and Synthesizers:
   • Often used to sustain pad sounds, strings, or ambient effects for continuity in modern compositions.

Common Sustain Pedal Designs

• Acoustic Piano Pedals: Integrated into the piano frame.
• Portable Sustain Pedals: External devices for digital keyboards, mimicking the shape of traditional piano pedals.

The sustain pedal is a vital tool for musicians, enhancing both the technical and emotional aspects of playing, whether on a traditional piano or a modern digital instrument.

Swing

Swing refers to a rhythmic feel or groove where the emphasis is on the off-beats or subdivisions of the beat, creating a “bouncing” or “lilting” sensation. It is a defining characteristic of jazz, blues, and swing-era big band music, but it is also used in various other genres to add a sense of movement and playfulness.

Characteristics of Swing

1. Rhythmic Pattern:
   • In swing, straight eighth notes are interpreted as uneven, with the first note of each pair slightly longer (often two-thirds of the beat) and the second note shorter (one-third of the beat).
   • This creates a “long-short” feel instead of evenly spaced notes.
2. Syncopation:
   • Swing often emphasizes unexpected beats or off-beats, adding energy and unpredictability.
3. Groove:
   • Swing creates a rhythmic flow that makes music feel dynamic and danceable.

Examples of Swing in Music

1. Jazz:
   • Swing is foundational to jazz styles, especially in big band and bebop music.
   • Artists like Duke Ellington, Count Basie, and Benny Goodman popularized swing rhythms.
2. Blues:
   • Swing is frequently used in blues to add a laid-back, grooving feel.
3. Pop and Rock:
   • Swing-inspired rhythms occasionally appear in rock and pop music, such as the swing feel in Elvis Presley’s “Hound Dog.”

Swing vs. Straight Rhythms

• Straight Rhythm: Notes are evenly spaced within the beat.
• Swing Rhythm: Notes are unevenly spaced, with a “triplet-like” division of the beat.

Why Swing Matters

• Expressiveness: Swing adds character and emotional nuance to a performance.
• Danceability: Swing rhythms are inherently rhythmic and lively, making them ideal for dancing.
• Improvisation: In jazz, swing provides a flexible rhythmic framework that encourages creativity and spontaneity.

Swing is a cornerstone of rhythm in many musical styles, offering a unique blend of structure and fluidity that brings music to life.

SXSW

South By South-West is an annual music fair in Austin, Texas. Recently, SXSW has become widely known for breaking live acts via the numerous local gigs and showcases in and around the festival.

Sync License

A Sync License, short for Synchronization License, is a license agreement between a Publisher and the producer of an audio visual work, such as a motion picture, television program, television commercial, and video game.

The Sync License grants the producer the right to use a song in the soundtrack of the particular project, governed by a number of conditions and limitations. Rights granted are normally non-exclusive. This includes stipulating distribution in any and all media (such as theaters, video devices, and video on demand), the performance of the resulting audio visual work, including the song, and limitations to the territories that the license applies to, and limitations and conditions governing advertisements, clips, and trailers that the producer has the right to use the song in.

The rights to a composition or the “song”, which is different from the studio sound recording, are most often administered by the publishing company that represents the writer/producer. The value in the copyright of a recording is divided into two pieces:

• The “master” sound recording, is the studio recording of a performance of the song. Commonly owned by the Record Label.
• The composition is the lyrics and melody written by the songwriter(s) and administered by the music publisher.

There is no fixed fee for sync licenses. Fees are set or negotiated by the song Publishers.

Symphony

A symphony is a large-scale musical composition, typically written for an orchestra, that is structured in multiple movements. It is one of the most significant and celebrated forms in Western classical music, showcasing a composer’s ability to develop and express complex musical ideas.

Structure of a Symphony

1. Movements:
   • A symphony usually consists of three to four movements, each with its own tempo, mood, and character:
     1. First Movement: Often fast-paced (Allegro) and written in sonata form, introducing and developing themes.
     2. Second Movement: Slower and more lyrical (Adagio or Andante), providing contrast and emotional depth.
     3. Third Movement: A dance-like section, such as a minuet or scherzo, often lighter and more playful.
     4. Fourth Movement: A lively and energetic finale (Allegro or Presto), bringing the symphony to a dramatic conclusion.
2. Orchestration:
   • A symphony is typically scored for a full orchestra, including strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion, sometimes with additional instruments or vocal parts.

Key Characteristics of a Symphony

1. Thematic Development:
   • Themes introduced in one movement may be revisited and transformed in others, creating unity across the work.
2. Dynamic Contrast:
   • Symphonies often feature a wide range of dynamics, from delicate pianissimo passages to powerful fortissimo climaxes.
3. Length and Complexity:
   • Symphonies are often longer and more intricate than other orchestral works, allowing composers to explore a wide array of musical ideas.

Famous Composers of Symphonies

1. Ludwig van Beethoven: Expanded the scope and emotional depth of the symphony (e.g., Symphony No. 9).
2. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Wrote elegant and balanced symphonies (e.g., Symphony No. 41, “Jupiter”).
3. Gustav Mahler: Known for his monumental symphonies with vast orchestration and profound themes.
4. Johannes Brahms: Blended tradition and innovation in his symphonic works.

Cultural Importance of Symphonies

• Expression of Creativity: A symphony allows composers to demonstrate their mastery of orchestration and form.
• Historical Significance: Symphonies have been a central part of classical music’s development, reflecting the styles and philosophies of different eras.
• Concert Staples: Symphonies remain a cornerstone of orchestral performances worldwide.

A symphony represents the pinnacle of orchestral composition, blending structure, emotion, and artistry into a powerful musical experience.

Sync Rights/Synchronization Rights

Sync Rights are the rights that permit songs or other compositions to be recorded for use as in a soundtrack or used as background music in TV or film. The term synchronization relates to screen visuals normally being synchronized with the song or composition.

Sync Rights are granted by the owners of the copyright.

Syncopation

Syncopation is a rhythmic concept where the emphasis or accent is placed on beats or parts of beats that are typically weak or unexpected. It disrupts the regular flow of rhythm, creating tension, surprise, and movement in music. Syncopation is used across various genres, including jazz, pop, classical, rock, and electronic music, to add complexity and interest to a composition.

How Syncopation Works

1. Emphasis on Weak Beats
   • In a 4/4 time signature, strong beats are typically 1 and 3. Syncopation shifts emphasis to weaker beats (2 and 4) or even off-beats.
2. Off-Beat Rhythms
   • Accents or notes are played in between the main beats, such as on the “and” of a count (e.g., 1-and-2-and).
3. Rest Substitutions
   • Syncopation can occur when expected strong beats are replaced with rests, creating a feeling of displacement.

Examples of Syncopation

1. Simple Syncopation:
   • A note is accented on the “and” instead of the main beat, such as in reggae’s off-beat guitar strums.
2. Complex Syncopation:
   • Found in jazz, where melodies and rhythms weave intricate patterns that emphasize unexpected beats.
3. Polyrhythms:
   • Overlapping rhythms with different accents can create a syncopated feel, common in African and Latin music.

Impact of Syncopation

• Creates Groove: Adds energy and movement, making rhythms feel more dynamic.
• Adds Tension: The irregularity keeps listeners engaged by defying their rhythmic expectations.
• Defines Style: Syncopation is a defining characteristic of genres like funk, jazz, and hip-hop.

Famous Examples

• “Take Five” by Dave Brubeck: Jazz classic with syncopated rhythms.
• “Superstition” by Stevie Wonder: Funky syncopated keyboard and drum patterns.
• “Billie Jean” by Michael Jackson: Iconic bassline with syncopated accents.

Syncopation enriches music by creating rhythmic interest, making it an essential tool for composers, performers, and producers.

Synthesizer (Synthesiser)

A synthesizer is an electronic instrument that generates and manipulates sound using various methods, such as oscillators, filters, and modulators. Synthesizers are widely used in music production and live performance across genres, from electronic and pop to rock and film scoring.

How a Synthesizer Works

1. Sound Generation:
   • Synthesizers create sound through oscillators, which produce basic waveforms such as sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth.
2. Sound Shaping:
   • Filters (e.g., low-pass, high-pass) and envelopes (ADSR: Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release) are used to sculpt the sound.
3. Modulation:
   • LFOs (Low-Frequency Oscillators) and other tools add dynamic changes to pitch, volume, or timbre, creating movement and complexity.
4. Output:
   • The processed signal is sent to speakers, headphones, or recording devices for playback.

Types of Synthesizers

1. Analog Synthesizers:
   • Generate sound using analog circuitry. Known for warm, rich tones. Examples: Moog Minimoog, ARP 2600.
2. Digital Synthesizers:
   • Use digital processing to create and manipulate sound. Examples: Yamaha DX7, Korg M1.
3. Software Synthesizers (Soft Synths):
   • Virtual instruments within DAWs. Examples: Serum, Massive, Omnisphere.
4. Modular Synthesizers:
   • Highly customizable systems where users connect individual components (oscillators, filters, etc.) with patch cables.

Common Synthesis Methods

1. Subtractive Synthesis:
   • Removes frequencies from a rich waveform using filters.
2. FM Synthesis:
   • Modulates one waveform with another for complex tones.
3. Wavetable Synthesis:
   • Uses pre-recorded waveforms for sound generation.
4. Granular Synthesis:
   • Splits sound into tiny grains and rearranges them for unique textures.

Uses of Synthesizers

• Music Production: Create basslines, leads, pads, and sound effects.
• Sound Design: Used in film, gaming, and virtual reality for crafting unique soundscapes.
• Live Performance: Synths are integral to electronic and experimental music performances.

Synthesizers revolutionized music by offering virtually limitless sonic possibilities, making them essential tools for composers, producers, and performers alike.

Systematic Musicology

Systematic musicology is an interdisciplinary field of musicology that studies music from a broad perspective, incorporating scientific, theoretical, and cultural approaches. It focuses on the principles, systems, and universal aspects of music rather than specific historical or cultural contexts, blending insights from music theory, psychology, acoustics, sociology, and technology.

Key Areas of Systematic Musicology

1. Music Theory and Analysis:
   • Examines the structure and organization of music, such as harmony, rhythm, and form.
2. Music Perception and Cognition:
   • Studies how humans perceive, process, and respond to music, involving fields like psychology and neuroscience.
3. Acoustics and Psychoacoustics:
   • Investigates the physical properties of sound and how they are interpreted by the human ear and brain.
4. Sociology of Music:
   • Explores the role of music in society, including its cultural, political, and social functions.
5. Ethnomusicology and Comparative Musicology:
   • Examines music across different cultures to identify universal patterns and unique practices.
6. Music Technology:
   • Focuses on the tools and systems used in creating, recording, and distributing music, such as software, synthesizers, and AI.

Applications of Systematic Musicology

1. Scientific Research:
   • Enhances understanding of how music affects human emotions, behavior, and cognition.
2. Music Education:
   • Provides foundational knowledge for teaching music theory, history, and practice.
3. Music Technology Development:
   • Drives innovation in digital audio tools, instruments, and production techniques.
4. Cultural Analysis:
   • Informs discussions on how music shapes and reflects cultural identities.

Historical Context

• Systematic musicology emerged in the 19th and early 20th centuries alongside historical musicology, but with a focus on general principles rather than specific works or eras.

Why Systematic Musicology Matters

• Interdisciplinary Insights:
  • Connects music with fields like science, philosophy, and sociology.
• Universal Understanding:
  • Seeks to uncover the shared elements of musical experience across cultures and histories.
• Innovation:
  • Informs the development of new technologies and methodologies for studying and creating music.

Systematic musicology offers a comprehensive approach to understanding music as both an art form and a scientific phenomenon, bridging diverse disciplines to explore the universal and contextual dimensions of music.