R&B

R&B, short for Rhythm and Blues, is a genre of popular music that originated in the African American communities of the 1940s. It combines elements of jazz, gospel, and blues, characterized by its soulful melodies, syncopated rhythms, and expressive vocals. Over time, R&B has evolved into a broad genre that includes contemporary styles like modern soul, funk, and hip-hop-infused pop.

Key Features:

• Rhythm: Strong, syncopated grooves often driven by drums, bass, and percussion.
• Vocals: Emotive, soulful singing, frequently featuring melismatic phrases and dynamic expression.
• Instrumentation: A blend of traditional instruments like piano, guitar, and brass with electronic sounds, synthesizers, and drum machines in modern R&B.
• Themes: Lyrics often explore love, relationships, personal struggles, and social issues.

Subgenres and Evolution:

• Classic R&B (1940s–1960s): Early R&B blended blues rhythms with swing influences and set the stage for rock ‘n’ roll.
• Soul and Funk (1960s–1970s): Offshoots of R&B, emphasizing vocal emotion (soul) and rhythmic grooves (funk).
• Contemporary R&B (1980s–present): Combines traditional R&B elements with modern production techniques, often influenced by hip-hop and electronic music.

Examples:

• Early R&B: Ray Charles’ What’d I Say or Ruth Brown’s Mama He Treats Your Daughter Mean.
• Soulful R&B: Aretha Franklin’s Respect and Marvin Gaye’s Let’s Get It On.
• Modern R&B: Beyoncé’s Halo, The Weeknd’s Blinding Lights, and SZA’s Good Days.

R&B has been a cornerstone of modern music, influencing countless genres, from rock and pop to hip-hop and electronic. Its deep emotional resonance, rhythmic innovation, and cultural significance have made it a lasting and evolving force in the music industry.

Rack-jobbers

Rack-jobbers are record retailers that rent floor space, to sell Physical Records, from Big Box Stores and other large retail stores, where the store’s main business is not selling records.

Rack Mount

A rack mount refers to a standardized system for housing audio equipment, musical gear, and other professional devices in a frame or cabinet. Rack-mounted equipment is designed to fit into these racks, making it easier to organize, transport, and access multiple devices in studio or live performance setups.

Key Features:

• Standard Size: Most rack-mounted devices conform to the 19-inch width standard, with height measured in rack units (U), where 1U equals 1.75 inches.
• Customizability: Rack systems can be configured to hold a wide variety of equipment, including effects processors, amplifiers, power conditioners, and digital interfaces.
• Cable Management: Provides a tidy and efficient way to manage power and audio connections.

Uses in Music:

• Studio Setups: Rack mounts are used to organize studio gear like compressors, equalizers, and audio interfaces for efficient workflow.
• Live Sound: Touring musicians and sound engineers use racks to house gear like wireless microphone systems, in-ear monitor transmitters, and digital processors.
• Synthesizers and Modular Systems: Many synthesizers and modular components are designed as rack-mounted units for compact integration.

Examples of Rack-Mounted Gear:

• A multi-effects processor for a guitarist, such as the Line 6 Helix Rack.
• A studio compressor, like the Universal Audio LA-2A, housed in a rack for easy access during mixing sessions.
• A power amplifier used in live sound systems, neatly installed in a rack for safe transport.

Rack mounts are essential for professional music environments, offering a compact, organized, and secure way to house and use multiple pieces of equipment. They streamline workflows, protect gear during transport, and create a professional setup for both live and studio applications.

Radio Edit

A radio edit is a version of a song that is specifically altered to meet the guidelines and preferences of radio stations. It often involves changes to the song’s length, lyrics, and production to make it suitable for broadcast, ensuring it appeals to a wide audience and adheres to broadcasting standards.

Key Features:

• Shortened Length: Radio edits are typically shorter, around 3 to 4 minutes, to fit radio programming formats and hold listeners’ attention.
• Censored Content: Explicit language or controversial topics are removed or replaced to comply with broadcasting regulations.
• Optimized Structure: Adjustments may include removing extended intros, solos, or outros to create a tighter, more accessible arrangement.
• Loudness Adjustments: The mix may be tweaked to ensure clarity and consistency when played alongside other tracks on the radio.

Uses in Music:

• Single Releases: Artists often create radio edits for their singles to maximize airplay and reach a broader audience.
• Pop and Mainstream Genres: Radio edits are commonly used in genres like pop, hip-hop, and EDM, where airplay significantly impacts a song’s success.
• Promotion: A radio edit acts as a promotional tool to introduce audiences to a song before they explore the full version on albums or streaming platforms.

Examples:

• A hip-hop track may replace explicit lyrics with clean versions or instrumental sections for radio play.
• A dance track with a six-minute runtime might be trimmed to a more radio-friendly three minutes.
• A rock song with a long guitar solo may have the solo shortened or omitted in the radio edit.

Radio edits are crucial for making songs accessible to mainstream audiences and meeting the constraints of radio broadcasting. They help artists gain exposure, ensure compliance with regulations, and make tracks more appealing for mass consumption.

Radio Plugger/Plugger

Radio pluggers promote single, EP, and album releases to radio.

Radio pluggers normally push specific singles, going to radio station playlist meetings, and pushing to get the song they represent placed on a playlist.

Re-Recording Restriction

Recording Agreements stipulate that the artist is not permitted to re-record any songs they have previously recorded, during the term of their current recording contract, until after the recording contract has ended.

Re-recording restrictions typically extend until the later of either:

1. Date of delivery of the last Master containing the song + 5 years
2. Date of the end of the term of the recording contract + 2 years

Re-recording restrictions can bind dropped artists as the Label will not want to release the artist’s album. Dropped artists are not allowed to record the unreleased songs for another label (or anybody else) until the re-recording restriction is over.

Artists need to consider the termination of the re-recording restriction in any form of written release agreement, at least for any unreleased recordings. The outgoing Label will often use this as leverage to get the artist or their new Label to buy the unreleased material from the outgoing Label.

Producer Agreements usually limit Producers, stopping them from recording or producing the same song, or songs, for any other artist or performer for 2 to 3 years after the delivery of the produced Master(s) or their later release.

Recitative

Recitative is a style of vocal delivery in opera, oratorio, and cantata where the singer adopts a speech-like rhythm and melody to convey dialogue or narrative. It serves as a bridge between musical sections, advancing the story or setting up an aria.

Key Features:

• Speech-Like Quality: Unlike fully melodic singing, recitative closely mimics natural speech patterns in rhythm and pitch.
• Sparse Accompaniment: Typically accompanied by a basso continuo or minimal instrumentation, providing harmonic support without overshadowing the voice.
• Two Types:
  • Secco Recitative: “Dry” recitative with simple, chordal accompaniment.
  • Accompagnato Recitative: “Accompanied” recitative with a fuller orchestral backing for dramatic emphasis.

Uses in Music:

• Opera: Recitative is used to deliver dialogue or narrative, often leading into arias or ensemble pieces.
• Oratorio: In sacred works, recitative tells the story or conveys scriptural text, providing context for choruses and solos.
• Cantata: Recitative sections connect movements, presenting the narrative in a clear and expressive way.

Examples:

• In Handel’s Messiah, the recitative “Comfort ye my people” introduces the aria “Every valley shall be exalted.”
• Mozart’s operas, such as The Marriage of Figaro, frequently use secco recitative for conversational scenes.
• Verdi’s La Traviata features accompagnato recitatives for heightened emotional moments.

Recitative is a vital storytelling tool in classical vocal music, providing clarity and emotional depth to the narrative. By blending speech and song, it allows for dynamic expression and seamless transitions between dramatic and musical moments. Its use has shaped the structure and pacing of operatic and vocal compositions for centuries.

Rear Bus

Rear bus refers to an auxiliary or secondary audio bus in a mixing setup, typically used for advanced signal routing and processing. It allows audio engineers to create a separate signal path for effects, parallel compression, or monitoring, giving greater control and flexibility during mixing or live sound reinforcement.

Key Features:

• Signal Routing: Rear buses let engineers send specific tracks or groups of tracks to a secondary mix path, independent of the main output.
• Processing: Often used for applying parallel effects like reverb, compression, or distortion without affecting the main signal directly.
• Monitoring: Can be used for creating alternate mixes, such as headphone mixes for performers.

Uses in Audio Production:

• Parallel Compression: A rear bus can blend heavily compressed signals with the original tracks for added punch while retaining dynamics.
• Effects Layers: Engineers use rear buses to add reverb, delay, or other effects selectively to specific instruments or vocals.
• Live Sound: A rear bus can route audio for different outputs, such as feeding stage monitors or a recording device separately from the front-of-house mix.

Examples:

• In a rock mix, a rear bus might process drum tracks with parallel compression, giving the drums more presence without overpowering the mix.
• In live sound, a rear bus could send an alternate mix to stage monitors, allowing performers to hear themselves more clearly.
• For film soundtracks, rear buses might route dialogue, music, and effects to different outputs for precise mixing in post-production.

The rear bus is a powerful tool for managing complex audio setups, allowing for creative and technical flexibility. By using rear buses effectively, engineers can achieve polished, professional mixes that maintain clarity and depth across various playback environments.

Record

Recording Agreements usually define a Record in very broad, catch-all terms. This ensures that the contract terms apply in as broad a range of circumstances as possible.

Due to this broad definition and a negative covenant contained in the Recording Agreement, even if an artist records a song Master for use in a movie, the artist will almost certainly need permission from their Label, even when no soundtrack album is planned.

Record Clubs

Record Clubs generally sign up customers to an agreement where they agree to purchase a minimum number of records via mail-order over an agreed period of time.

The customer is given free albums as an incentive to “join” the club.

In a Distribution Agreement, artists may retain record club rights. In practical terms, this means that the artist may be able to negotiate a deal directly with record clubs. This could result in the record club paying an Advance as well as royalties. That said, Record Clubs are pretty well a thing of the past in the USA.

Record Label

A record label is a company that oversees the production, distribution, promotion, and marketing of music recordings. Record labels work with artists, producers, and other professionals to create and commercialize music, acting as a bridge between the artist and the audience.

Key Features:

• Types of Record Labels:
  • Major Labels: Large, global companies like Universal Music Group, Sony Music, and Warner Music Group with extensive resources and influence.
  • Independent (Indie) Labels: Smaller, often artist-focused labels with niche markets and creative flexibility.
  • DIY/Artist-Owned Labels: Labels operated by artists themselves to maintain creative control and retain more revenue.
• Services Provided:
  • Recording: Organizing studio sessions and funding production costs.
  • Distribution: Ensuring music reaches streaming platforms, physical stores, and other outlets.
  • Promotion: Handling marketing campaigns, radio play, press coverage, and social media strategies.
  • Rights Management: Managing copyrights and royalties on behalf of artists.

How They Work:
Record labels typically sign artists to contracts, which may include advances, royalty splits, and performance expectations. In exchange, the label invests in the artist’s career, aiming to profit from music sales, streams, and related activities.

Examples:

• A major label signs a pop artist, funds their album, and launches a global marketing campaign.
• An indie label partners with a niche rock band, helping them build a loyal fan base.
• An artist creates their own label to release music on their terms without external interference.

Record labels play a vital role in the music industry by supporting artists and ensuring their music reaches wider audiences. For artists, understanding how labels operate is crucial to making informed decisions about their careers and contracts.

Recording

A recording is the process of capturing sound, typically music or vocals, onto a medium for playback, distribution, and preservation. Recordings can be created using various techniques and technologies, ranging from analog tape machines to digital audio workstations (DAWs).

Key Features:

• Audio Sources: Can include vocals, instruments, environmental sounds, or synthesized audio.
• Formats: Includes analog formats (e.g., vinyl, cassette) and digital formats (e.g., MP3, WAV, FLAC).
• Multitrack Recording: A technique where different sound sources are recorded on separate tracks for mixing flexibility.

Types of Recording:

• Studio Recording: Created in a controlled environment with professional equipment, offering high-quality sound.
• Live Recording: Captures a performance in real time, often including audience reactions and ambient noise.
• Field Recording: Capturing sounds in outdoor or non-studio settings, often used for sound design or experimental music.

Applications in Music:

• Song Production: Recordings serve as the foundation for creating singles, albums, and other musical projects.
• Demos: Artists record demo tracks to showcase their ideas to collaborators, producers, or labels.
• Distribution: Recordings enable music to reach global audiences through streaming platforms, radio, and physical media.

Examples:

• A singer records vocals in a studio for a polished pop single.
• A band creates a live album by recording their concert performance.
• A sound designer uses field recordings of nature to create ambient tracks.

Recordings are the primary way music is shared, experienced, and preserved. They allow artists to express their creativity, connect with audiences, and leave a lasting legacy. Advances in recording technology continue to push the boundaries of what’s possible in music production and sound design.

Recording Contract/Record Contract/Record Deal

A legal contract that contains all details governing the agreement between a Record Label and an artist when that artist signs to the Label. Recording Contracts are used by major Record Labels and Independent Record Labels.

Recording Costs

All money spent in connection with the recording of the Masters including:

• travel
• rehearsal
• equipment hire
• equipment transportation costs
• re-mixing and/or ‘sweetening’ costs
• advances
• producer fees (not royalties)
• personal transportation costs
• living expenses
• studio hire
• engineering charges
• session musician fees
• Label facilities and personnel etc.
• mastering

Under Recording Agreements, recording costs are usually recoupable from Artist Royalties (but not from Mechanical Royalties).

Recording Fund

An Advance to cover Recording Costs for a particular album or Record project.

Recoup

To recoup means to recover an advance payment.

Recording Advances are repayable, to a record label, from royalties earned on record sales.

Un-recouped artists in theory owe their record label money and may have to be bought out if they sign with another label.

Publishing advances are recouped from publishing royalties.

Recoupable Costs

Not every cost for creating, marketing, or promoting an artist’s record is an “Advance”, i.e., a recoupable cost. Typically, recording costs, video production costs, artist advances, and tour support have been recoupable from record royalties in traditional record deals, and writer advances and a few other costs have been recoupable from revenues other than the writer’s share of performance royalties in publishing deals (for example song demos and copyright registration fees).

Artists who signed a recording agreement (or a master license agreement) with a record company have royalty accounts that are administered by the record label.

• Revenues are deposited in the artist’s royalty account
• Recoupable costs are withdrawn from the artist’s royalty account

Royalty accounts usually come in two types:

• Artist royalties
• Mechanical royalties

Where:

• Artist royalties are paid for sales of records (digital or physical)
• Artist royalties are paid for license fees for use of  the sound recordings (such as TV licenses)
• Mechanical royalties are paid to an artist when they are a songwriter on their recorded songs where the artist writes all or part and they are “embodied in” the sound recordings

In a traditional record deal Artist Royalties and Mechanical Royalties are kept apart, except in unusual circumstances:

1. Indemnity claims
2. Overpayments of either royalty (i.e. the label paid you more than you were entitled to);
3. Union penalties that are your fault
4. Unexcused over budget tours or recording costs

Depending on the type of deal, record labels might want to “cross” mechanical royalties with record royalties for more flexible recoupment, but not normally. This is known as Cross-collateralization.

If the record label has used the Mechanical royalty payments to recoup advances under the artist recording agreement, the mechanical royalties will not be available for recoupment, making it extremely hard to get a meaningful co-publishing deal.

Recouperable

Items covered by a record contract can, in theory, be recovered from the artist by the label. See also non-recouperable.

Recoupment

To get back the money invested or spent by a subsequent gain. The Advance is repaid until such time as the aggregate royalties equal the Advance. The “unrecouped balance” refers to the amount outstanding.

Recoupment deals mainly involve new artists, or artists without a proven sales history. It is a way of mitigating the risk of poor or an unknown level of sales.

Recoupment Rate

Artists need to know the level of recoupable costs to be repaid from their royalty accounts. They also need to know what the recoupment rate will be. This means the rate by which revenue will be credited to their royalty account, per unit sold. Normally this will be the same as the “all-in” rate, i.e. payable at the gross artist royalty rate, as defined in the recording agreement.

By converting the recoupment rate into a base money value, you can work out the approximate point at which breakeven wIll be reached.

Example

If the total advance is $1000 and the gross artist royalty works out as $1, then the recoupment will also be $1 per unit sold, meaning 1000 units need to be sold in order to repay the advance, i.e. “break even”.

In simple terms, although royalties are being earned, those royalties will be credited against the effective balance of -$1000 at the recoupment rate of $1 per unit. Realistically, you will not earn until the advance is repaid.

In this case, the artist would qualify to be payable for their first $1 when they reached 1001 units sold.

Artists are paid out every 6 months. Ongoing advances will be debited against the royalty account on a “rolling” basis. i.e. new advances, made during the accounting period, will also be debited.

Red Book

The technical specification for standard audio CDs is known as the Red Book standard, which specifies the audio should be stereo, 16 bit at 44.1kHz sample rate.

Reflex Cabinet

Generally only for Bass cabinets. A reflex cabinet is one where you have the speaker facing the back of the cabinet and holes in the top and bottom of the cabinet to reflect the sound out.

Refrain

A refrain is a repeated line or group of lines in a song or poem, often appearing at the end of a verse or between verses. It serves as a recurring theme or anchor point, typically containing the song’s central idea or message.

A refrain is NOT a distinct section. It is fundamentally part of a verse. Usually, though not always, at the end of every verse. Often it contains the hook/title and tends to be the most memorable part of the song.

The refrain is intended to be the most memorable part of the song. It is repeated several times so that it sticks in your mind.

Key Features:

• Repetition: The defining characteristic of a refrain is that it repeats throughout the song.
• Placement: It usually occurs at predictable intervals, such as after each verse or at the end of a stanza.
• Hook-Like Quality: The refrain often contains memorable lyrics and melodies, making it stand out and easy to recall.
• Contrast with Chorus: While similar to a chorus, a refrain is usually shorter and may blend seamlessly into the surrounding verse.

Examples in Music:

• In folk music, refrains are often sung by a group, while verses are sung solo (e.g., “Blowin’ in the Wind” by Bob Dylan).
• Many traditional ballads use refrains to unify long narrative lyrics.
• In pop songs, refrains may be the most memorable lines, like “All you need is love” from The Beatles’ All You Need Is Love.

Applications in Songwriting:

• Reinforces the Theme: A refrain repeats the central idea, making it clear and impactful.
• Builds Familiarity: Repeated phrases help listeners connect with the song and make it easier to sing along.
• Adds Structure: The refrain acts as a musical and lyrical landmark, giving the song a cohesive flow.

Refrains are a powerful songwriting tool, offering a sense of consistency and resonance in music. They help create emotional connection, making songs more relatable, memorable, and engaging for listeners.

Register

In music, a register refers to a specific range of pitches or frequencies produced by a voice or instrument. Registers are often categorized as low, middle, or high, and they significantly influence the tonal quality and expression of a performance.

Key Features:

• Pitch Range: A register covers a span of pitches, such as the bass, tenor, alto, or soprano ranges in human voices.
• Timbre Variation: The character of the sound changes depending on the register; for instance, higher notes often sound brighter, while lower notes sound richer or darker.
• Breaks and Transitions: In both voice and instruments, transitions between registers (e.g., chest to head voice in singing) can introduce noticeable shifts in sound quality.

How It Works:
Registers are defined by the physical properties of the sound source. For singers, registers are created by different patterns of vocal fold vibration and resonance. For instruments, registers are influenced by factors like string length, air column size, or digital programming in synthesizers.

Applications in Music:

• Vocals: Singers use different registers, such as chest voice, head voice, or falsetto, to achieve a variety of expressive tones.
• Instruments: Instruments like the piano or flute have distinct registers that players can use to convey different dynamics and emotions.
• Arrangements: Composers and arrangers use registers to balance and contrast parts within an ensemble or recording.

Examples:

• A soprano singer’s high register is often used for soaring, dramatic melodies.
• A guitar solo may shift between the low register for warmth and the high register for intensity.
• A composer might write basslines in the low register and melodies in the high register for contrast.

Understanding registers allows musicians to effectively use the full range of their voice or instrument, enhancing expressiveness and impact. It also helps producers and arrangers create well-balanced compositions, ensuring each element stands out and contributes to the overall sound.

Relative Minor/Major

The relative minor and major are pairs of keys or scales that share the same key signature but have different tonal centers. The relative minor scale begins on the sixth degree of its major counterpart, while the relative major scale starts on the third degree of its minor counterpart.

Key Features:

• Shared Key Signature: Both scales use the same set of notes but start on different root notes.
• Relationship: The relative minor adds a melancholic or darker tone to the brighter sound of the relative major, and vice versa.
• Tonal Center: The main difference lies in the scale’s root note, which establishes the tonal center.

How to Find Relative Minor/Major:

• Relative Minor: To find the relative minor of a major scale, go down three semitones (or a minor third). For example:
  • C major → A minor
  • G major → E minor
• Relative Major: To find the relative major of a minor scale, go up three semitones (or a minor third). For example:
  • A minor → C major
  • E minor → G major

Uses in Music:

• Key Changes: Switching between relative major and minor is a common way to add contrast and emotional depth to compositions.
• Chord Progressions: Composers use the relationship between the relative major and minor to create seamless transitions in harmonic progressions.
• Melody Writing: Melodic lines often shift between relative scales for variety and expression.

Examples:

• Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5 in C minor moves to C major in the triumphant finale.
• Many folk songs and pop ballads use the relative minor for a verse and the relative major for a chorus to enhance contrast.
• In Adele’s Someone Like You, the interplay between A major and its relative minor, F# minor, adds emotional weight to the song.

Understanding the relationship between relative minor and major keys is fundamental for composing, improvising, and analyzing music. It provides a versatile tool for exploring emotional contrasts and creating smooth key transitions in musical works.

Release

The release of physical records (vinyl, cassette, CD, MiniDisc, etc.) to retail and radio, was a formal event with a planned and coordinated process before and after the release event.

Releasing records by established or breaking artists was staged with every bit of show staging as you would expect for the premiere night launch for a major movie. Formal launches are still used in the mainstream music industry but independent artists tend to be much, much less formal, to the point that releases have virtually no lead-up process and a very informal post-release range of activities.

Release Commitment

The Release Commitment is a provision within a recording contract that commits the Label to release an album. It also specifies the options available to an artist to remedy when a Label breaks this commitment.

Typically, a release commitment (in the United States) would likely include:

1. A time limit (say 120 days) for the album release, after the album has been Delivered by the Artist to the Label.
2. A time limit (say 30 days) for the Artist to notify the Label that they intend to exercise this contract provision, and so terminate the term of the record contract.
3. A new time limit (say 60 days) for the label to release the album after being notified by the Artist of the intention to terminate on the grounds of a breach of the Release Commitment clause.
4. A time limit (say 30 days) for the Artist to send a second notice to the Label that they intend to exercise this contract provision, and so terminate the term of the record contract.

Exactly what a “release” is, may or may not be defined within the recording contract. Artists need to be very careful here. They should ensure an adequate definition of exactly what constitutes a “release” is included in the Release Commitment.

As a consideration, the Release Commitment might stipulate:

• That the release is of a Physical Record
  • The formats
  • A minimum number of the initial production run
  • A real-world distribution
• A digital release onto the Internet
  • A real-world distribution

Release Commitments in US recording contracts relating to territories outside the United States are not usually worth much.

Release Date

A release date is the official day when a song, album, music video, or other musical project is made available to the public. This date is crucial for marketing, distribution, and tracking the success of the release.

Key Features:

• Timing: Typically chosen to align with promotional efforts, audience engagement, or strategic goals (e.g., holiday seasons or industry awards eligibility).
• Formats: Release dates may apply to digital platforms, physical copies, or both.
• Global vs. Regional: Some releases have staggered dates across different regions, while others are global to maximize impact.

Applications in the Music Industry:

• Digital Platforms: Streaming services like Spotify, Apple Music, and YouTube often require a release date when scheduling a new track or video.
• Physical Distribution: For CDs, vinyl, or merchandise, release dates help retailers plan inventory and sales.
• Chart Performance: Release dates determine eligibility for music charts, such as the Billboard Hot 100 or the UK Singles Chart.

Examples of Release Strategies:

• Single Release: Launching a single ahead of an album to build anticipation.
• Album Release Day: A high-profile release on a Friday (common for global music launches).
• Surprise Release: Unannounced drops, like Beyoncé’s Lemonade, to generate buzz.

The release date is a critical milestone in a music project’s lifecycle. A well-planned release date can maximize exposure, coordinate marketing efforts, and help artists achieve commercial and critical success. By carefully choosing the timing, artists and labels ensure their music reaches the right audience at the right moment.

Release Strategy

A release strategy is a planned approach for launching and promoting a music project, such as a single, album, or music video. It involves timing, marketing, distribution, and audience engagement tactics to maximize the project’s reach, impact, and success.

Key Features:

• Timing: Choosing the optimal release date to align with audience habits, industry cycles, or seasonal trends.
• Formats: Deciding on physical (e.g., vinyl, CDs) and digital (e.g., streaming platforms) formats for the release.
• Promotion: Coordinating pre-release buzz, such as teaser campaigns, press coverage, and social media marketing.
• Audience Targeting: Identifying the target demographic and tailoring messaging to connect effectively.
• Post-Release Activities: Including tours, interviews, or additional content to sustain interest.

Types of Release Strategies:

• Single Release Strategy: Releasing one or more singles before the full album to build anticipation.
• Surprise Release: Dropping a project with little to no prior announcement to create buzz and excitement.
• Staggered Release: Launching content in phases, such as releasing a single first, followed by an album and accompanying visuals.
• Exclusive Release: Partnering with specific platforms (e.g., Spotify, Apple Music) for exclusive early access.

Examples:

• Beyoncé’s surprise release of Lemonade generated massive buzz due to its unannounced drop and accompanying visual album.
• Billie Eilish’s When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? used singles like bad guy to build anticipation and establish her artistic identity.
• Taylor Swift’s Midnights implemented a well-coordinated countdown and pre-order campaign, leveraging fan engagement on social media.

A well-executed release strategy ensures that a music project reaches the right audience at the right time, creating maximum impact. It helps artists build momentum, increase visibility, and sustain engagement, turning their work into both a creative and commercial success.

Release Window

When releasing music, the tactic of Windowing uses a Release Window, to make the release available a number of weeks after the broadcast, letting the marketing “buzz” build, before the release drops.

Some Record Labels still believe the Release Window gives them a better chart position when the track eventually goes on sale.

Remix

A remix is a reimagined or altered version of an existing song, created by manipulating its original elements or adding new ones. Remixes often change the song’s style, tempo, or arrangement, offering a fresh perspective on the original track.

Key Features:

• Source Material: Typically starts with stems (individual tracks of vocals, instruments, etc.) from the original song.
• Artistic Interpretation: A remix can vary from slight adjustments (e.g., extending a dance beat) to a complete overhaul in a new genre.
• Purpose: Often created to reach new audiences, extend the lifespan of a song, or suit a specific setting, such as a club or festival.

Types of Remixes:

• Club Remix: Tailored for dance floors, often featuring extended intros and heavier basslines.
• Radio Remix: Shortened and polished for radio play, with a focus on maintaining mass appeal.
• Genre Crossover: Transforming a song into a different genre (e.g., turning a pop song into a rock or EDM track).
• Mashup Remix: Combining elements from multiple songs into a single, cohesive track.

Examples:

• DJ remixes of pop hits for electronic dance music festivals.
• Acoustic remixes of upbeat tracks to create a stripped-down, emotional version.
• Hip-hop remixes adding new verses or beats to an existing song.

Uses in Music:

• Audience Expansion: Remixes help songs reach listeners in different genres or cultural contexts.
• Collaboration Opportunities: Allow artists, DJs, and producers to reinterpret each other’s work.
• Promotional Use: Remixes can revive interest in a track or serve as bonus content in album releases.

Remixes showcase creativity and innovation, breathing new life into existing songs. They allow artists to collaborate across genres and connect with diverse audiences, making them a dynamic tool in the music industry.

Repertoire

Repertoire refers to the collection of songs, pieces, or works that a musician, band, ensemble, or performer is prepared to play or perform. It represents the body of music an artist is proficient in and ready to present in live performances, recordings, or practice sessions.

Key Features:

• Scope: A repertoire can include works from various genres, styles, or composers, depending on the artist’s focus and skill set.
• Customization: Repertoire is often tailored to suit the audience, venue, or specific performance context.
• Evolution: A repertoire grows and changes over time as musicians learn new material and retire older pieces.

Types of Repertoire:

• Classical Repertoire: Includes works by composers like Bach, Beethoven, or Mozart, often performed by soloists or orchestras.
• Popular Repertoire: Covers songs from genres like pop, rock, jazz, or folk, typically performed by bands or solo artists.
• Thematic Repertoire: Curated for specific occasions, such as holiday music, wedding playlists, or film scores.

Uses in Music:

• Live Performances: Repertoire forms the foundation of concert setlists, ensuring artists are prepared for a variety of events.
• Auditions and Competitions: Musicians often present a select repertoire to showcase their skill and versatility.
• Practice and Development: Expanding one’s repertoire enhances technical ability and musical knowledge.

Examples:

• A jazz pianist’s repertoire might include standards like Autumn Leaves or Take the A Train.
• A rock band’s repertoire could feature both original songs and covers for live gigs.
• An opera singer’s repertoire might consist of arias from famous operas by Verdi or Puccini.

Repertoire is a reflection of a musician’s identity, versatility, and experience. It ensures readiness for performances and provides the foundation for connecting with audiences, whether through familiar favorites or fresh interpretations of new material.

Replication

Standard CDs are replicated/pressed. Replicators press CDs using a glass master to stamp injection-molded CDs. Replicated CDs are more expensive than duplicated CDs but more reliable.

Reserves

The Record Label sets aside a pool of money from the Artist Royalties or Mechanical Royalties, money that otherwise would be payable to the artist or the Publisher. These Reserves are for the Record Label to cover the cost of any Returns of Physical Records that the Label may have paid Artist Royalties or Mechanical Royalties on.

Record Contracts often limit Reserves to “reasonable reserves” and/or to a percentage of Records shipped within a specified accounting period. The Record Contract should not allow the Record Label to include Artist Royalties or Mechanical Royalties generated by Digital Transmissions when the calculating reserves because Digital Transmissions cannot be Returned.

Most Labels liquidate reserves within 4 accounting periods. They also limit reserves outside of the United States to the size of the reserve, required by the Record Label’s foreign Distributor.

Distributors specify their Reserves within Distribution Agreements.

Resonance

Resonance is the phenomenon where a sound wave causes an object or system to vibrate at its natural frequency, amplifying the sound. In music, resonance plays a critical role in shaping the tone and quality of both acoustic and electronic sounds.

Key Features:

• Natural Frequency: The specific frequency at which an object or system vibrates most effectively.
• Sympathetic Resonance: When a sound source causes another object to vibrate in harmony, such as strings vibrating in response to nearby notes.
• Acoustic Resonance: Amplification of sound in a space, like a guitar body or vocal tract.
• Electronic Resonance: Boosting specific frequencies in synthesizers or equalizers.

How It Works:
Resonance occurs when energy from a sound wave matches the natural frequency of an object or system, leading to increased vibration and sound amplification. For example, the body of an acoustic guitar resonates with the strings’ vibrations, enriching the tone. Similarly, the human vocal tract shapes resonance to produce different vowel sounds.

Applications in Music:

• Instrument Design: Acoustic instruments like violins, pianos, and drums rely on resonance to enhance their sound quality.
• Recording and Mixing: Engineers use resonance to emphasize or reduce certain frequencies, ensuring a balanced mix.
• Sound Design: Synthesizers and filters exploit resonance to create unique textures, from subtle warmth to dramatic, sweeping effects.

Examples:

• A singer’s voice resonates within their chest and head, adding fullness and richness.
• A guitar’s soundboard vibrates sympathetically with the strings, amplifying the sound.
• A filter sweep on a synthesizer highlights resonant peaks, creating a dramatic, dynamic effect.

Resonance shapes how we perceive and experience sound. In music, it’s key to the tone, richness, and emotional impact of an instrument or performance. By understanding and controlling resonance, musicians and producers can craft sounds that resonate—literally and figuratively—with their audience.

Resonator

Generally a component in a Dobro guitar.

Resonators are the cymbal-looking pieces in the center of a guitar that adds a higher frequency to the sound.

Dobro guitars are often used for slide guitar parts.

Rest

A rest is a symbol in musical notation indicating a period of silence in a piece of music. During a rest, no notes are played or sung, but the timing of the silence is an essential part of the composition’s rhythm and structure.

Key Features:

• Duration: Rests, like notes, have specific lengths, such as whole rests, half rests, quarter rests, and so on.
• Symbol: Each type of rest has a unique symbol that corresponds to its duration.
• Placement: Rests are positioned on the staff to align with the beat or rhythm of the music.
• Function: Rests add dynamic contrast, allow breathing space, or emphasize rhythm.

Types of Rests:

• Whole Rest (Semibreve Rest): Silence for the duration of a whole measure in common time.
• Half Rest (Minim Rest): Silence for two beats in common time.
• Quarter Rest (Crotchet Rest): Silence for one beat in common time.
• Eighth Rest (Quaver Rest): Silence for half a beat in common time.
• Sixteenth Rest (Semiquaver Rest): Silence for a quarter of a beat in common time.

Examples in Music:

• Dramatic Pauses: Rests can create tension or anticipation by interrupting the flow of sound.
• Breathing Space: In vocal or wind music, rests allow performers to breathe or reset.
• Rhythmic Interest: Alternating notes and rests can create syncopation or intricate rhythms.

Rests are as important as notes in music. They provide balance, help shape phrasing, and create emotional impact by controlling when and where sound is absent. Mastering the use of rests is key to delivering nuanced and expressive performances and compositions.

Retail Merchandising

The sale of merchandise through any channel of distribution other than at a Venue. This includes merchandise sold:

• online
• through mail order
• at brick and mortar retail outlets, such as clothing or department stores

Retitling

A relatively common working practice of music libraries that license non-exclusive content. They give songs and compositions new names (re-title) to stop music that might be in multiple catalogs from causing any confusion or conflict.

Retroactive to Record One

Under a Producer Agreement, royalties are often payable to the Producer as “retroactive to record one” but only after the recoupment of Recording Costs for the Masters produced by the Producer at the “net artist rate”. This is similar to the definition of Recoupment Rate for Artists.

This means a royalty rate equal to the All-In Royalty rates payable to the artist minus the corresponding royalty rates payable to all of the Producers entitled to a royalty share with respect to the applicable Master.

The retroactive royalty is subject to the recoupment of any Advances paid to the Producer.

If the Advance is large, in relation to the Recording Costs, a retroactive payment may not be relevant, because the Advance is greater than the accumulated royalties.

Resonator

A resonator is a physical component or device that enhances sound by amplifying certain frequencies through resonance. It works by vibrating in response to a sound source, reinforcing specific tones and shaping the overall timbre of the sound. Resonators are commonly found in acoustic instruments, as well as in electronic sound design and audio engineering.

Key Features:

• Amplification: Resonators naturally boost specific frequencies, making sounds richer and louder.
• Frequency Selection: The size, shape, and material of the resonator determine which frequencies are amplified.
• Applications: Found in musical instruments, audio equipment, and synthesizers to influence tone and sustain.

Types of Resonators:

• Acoustic Resonators: Found in instruments like guitars (the hollow body), violins (the soundbox), and pianos (the soundboard).
• Mechanical Resonators: Used in devices like tuning forks or vibraphones, where physical vibration creates sound.
• Electronic Resonators: Filters in synthesizers or equalizers that mimic or emphasize resonant frequencies.
• Helmholtz Resonators: Simple, enclosed spaces (like a bottle) that resonate at a specific frequency, often used in acoustic engineering.

Uses in Music:

• Instrument Design: Resonators, such as the body of an acoustic guitar, enhance the instrument’s natural tone and projection.
• Sound Design: Synthesizers use electronic resonators to create unique textures by emphasizing specific frequencies.
• Percussion: Instruments like timpani and drums rely on resonators to enrich their sound.

Examples:

• The hollow body of a cello acts as a resonator, amplifying the vibrations of the strings.
• Dobro guitars feature metal cone resonators to create a distinctive, twangy sound in bluegrass and country music.
• Synth filters with resonance controls simulate the behavior of resonators to produce sweeping, dynamic sounds.

Resonators are essential for shaping the sound and character of musical instruments and audio systems. They enhance volume, tone, and sustain, making them a crucial component in both acoustic and electronic music. Understanding resonators helps musicians and engineers optimize sound quality and explore creative possibilities.

Retake

A retake in recording refers to the process of re-recording a specific section, part, or entire performance to correct mistakes, improve quality, or achieve a desired artistic outcome. Retakes are a common practice in studio recording sessions to ensure the final product meets professional and creative standards.

Key Features:

• Focused Improvement: Retakes target specific issues like timing, pitch, or delivery that need correction.
• Flexibility: Musicians can retake only the problematic sections (punch-ins) or redo the entire performance, depending on the need.
• Collaborative Process: Involves communication between the artist, producer, and engineer to identify areas for improvement.

Uses in Music Production:

• Vocals: Retakes are often used to perfect phrasing, intonation, or emotional delivery.
• Instruments: Guitar solos, drum fills, or piano parts may be retaken to refine precision or expression.
• Layered Tracks: Retakes can ensure consistency in harmonies or multi-layered instrumental arrangements.

Examples:

• A singer retakes a chorus to correct pitch issues or add emotional nuance.
• A drummer retakes a section where timing was off in the original performance.
• A guitarist retakes a solo to achieve a more dynamic or technically accurate execution.

Retakes are essential for producing polished, professional-quality recordings. They give artists the opportunity to refine their performances and achieve their creative vision. By embracing retakes as part of the recording process, musicians and producers ensure that the final track resonates with both technical excellence and artistic integrity.

Returns

In the United States and many foreign territories, Physical Records are sold on a consignment basis. In other words, a Distributor’s customers can return any unsold Physical Records to the Distributor and receive full credit in return, as the return of the wholesale price paid by the customer for the returned Record.

Distributors use a full credit return policy to encourage retailers to keep more copies of the Physical Records in stock than the retailer might have without a full credit Return Policy in place. This is especially true for releases from new/unknown artists.

Reverb

Sound will persist when a source sound wave travels around a physical space, colliding with any surfaces, causing many reflected versions of that sound wave within the space. When this happens some of those reflections will eventually travel back to the ears of a listener, along with the original sound wave, direct from the source of the sound.

The further the distance travelled by a sound wave the less energy there is in the wave. Additionally, each surface that the wave bounces off will absorb some of the energy within the reflected sound wave. The less energy in a wave, the lower it’s amplitude or volume.

This means that the direct sound is loudest sound we hear and it will also be the first sound we hear. We next hear the closest reflection. This sound wave has travelled further than the direct sound wave and it has bounced off one surface, so it is a little quieter than the direct sound. This process of hearing ever-quieter reflections continues until we can no longer hear the reflections. The quietest reflection we hear probably travelled the furthest and bounced off the most surfaces.

If we were to stand within a room and clap our hands, the source sound abruptly starts and abruptly stops. Yet, if we listen we will notice the sound we hear will gradually fade. This fading sound is called Reverberation, or Reverb for short. The time it takes for the sound to decay away, is the “Reverberation Time” or “Reverb Time”.

With reverb, individual reflections are not perceived. Instead the reflected sounds blend with the original sound and other reflections to give a softer, more distant feel to the sound. This is distinct to “delay” or “echo” where reflected sounds are perceived as being separate to the original sound or other reflections.

The reflections we hear within the first few milliseconds of hearing a direct sound are known as early reflections. Our brain uses these early reflections along with the direct sound to determine information about the environment we are in. If we are in a room this would include the size of the room. We can even identify the shape of the room and we can even determine information about the surface materials around us.

Reverb can also be created artificially by recreating sound reflections physically using a mechanical reverb device, or virtually, using an electronic reverb effect unit.

Mechanical reverb devices fall into being either a:

• Spring reverb

or

• Plate reverb

Electronic reverb devices are digital effects.

Songstuff Reverb Article

Reversion

Reversion is when a copyright assignment ends.

Copyright Assignments are normally time-limited or they are limited by some other condition including depending on the circumstances of the original rights-owner.

Reversion refers to the reversion of a Copyright to the author of the copyrighted material, such as an artist or songwriter.

Most Publishers will agree in a Publishing Agreement to a reversion of the Copyrights in the songs at some point in time.

Example

Under a Songwriter Agreement, the Copyrights in the songs may revert upon the later of :

(a) the date ten years after the end of the term of the agreement

or

(b) upon the date, the songwriter’s account becomes recouped

Songwriters commonly have the right to pay 110% of the unrecouped balance in order to become “recouped”.

Very few artists in the United States have the power to get a Label to grant them reversion rights in Sound Recording Copyrights.

Rhyme Scheme

A rhyme scheme is the structured pattern of rhymes at the end of lines in a poem, song lyrics, or other forms of writing. It provides a sense of rhythm, cohesion, and flow to the text, making it easier to follow and more memorable.

Key Features:

• Notation: Rhyme schemes are typically notated with letters (e.g., ABAB), where each letter represents a line, and matching letters indicate rhyming lines.
• Types: Common schemes include simple patterns like AA, ABAB, and AABB, as well as more complex arrangements like ABCB or irregular patterns.
• Function: Rhyme schemes help structure lyrical content and can enhance emotional or thematic elements of a song.

Examples of Rhyme Schemes:

• AA: “Fly me to the moon / And let me play among the stars soon.”
• ABAB: “The sun sets in the sky (A) / As clouds drift away (B) / Colors blend and fly (A) / Into the end of day (B).”
• AABB: “The rain falls soft, the earth turns wet (A) / A quiet world we can’t forget (A) / The night arrives, the stars take flight (B) / The moon ascends to light the night (B).”

Applications in Music:

• Pop and Rock Lyrics: Simple rhyme schemes (e.g., AABB) are often used to create catchy and singable choruses.
• Hip-Hop and Rap: Complex internal rhymes and irregular schemes add rhythmic variety and lyrical sophistication.
• Ballads and Folk Songs: Traditional rhyme schemes (e.g., ABAB) lend a timeless, narrative quality.

Rhyme schemes shape how lyrics are perceived and remembered. They can emphasize key words or ideas, enhance musicality, and create emotional resonance. Songwriters use rhyme schemes strategically to connect with their audience and give their lyrics a strong sense of structure and identity.

Rhythm

Rhythm refers to the pattern of sounds and silences in music, organized in time. It’s the backbone of a musical piece, creating structure and driving the flow of the composition.

Key Features:

• Beat: The steady pulse of the music, often felt or tapped along to.
• Tempo: The speed of the beat, measured in beats per minute (BPM).
• Meter: The grouping of beats into patterns, such as 4/4 or 3/4 time.
• Syncopation: A rhythmic technique where emphasis is placed on weaker beats or offbeats.
• Subdivision: Breaking down the beat into smaller units, like eighth notes or triplets.

How It Works:
Rhythm gives music its movement and makes it feel alive. It can be simple and repetitive, as in a basic drum beat, or complex and unpredictable, as in jazz or progressive rock. Musicians use rhythm to create tension and release, giving the audience something to anticipate or surprise them with unexpected patterns.

Examples:

• In pop music, rhythm is often straightforward, with a clear 4/4 beat driving the song.
• In Latin music, rhythms like the clave provide intricate layers of syncopation.
• A ballad might use a slow, flowing rhythm to evoke emotion, while a dance track employs a fast, energetic rhythm to get people moving.

Without rhythm, music would lack coherence and energy. It’s a universal aspect of music, present in every genre and culture. Whether you’re clapping along at a concert or analyzing a symphony, rhythm connects us to the music on a fundamental level.

Rhythm Section

The rhythm section is the group of musicians in a band or ensemble responsible for providing the rhythmic and harmonic foundation of the music. It typically includes instruments that play chords, basslines, and percussion, creating the groove and structure for the rest of the performance.

Key Features:

• Core Instruments:
  • Drums/Percussion: Establish the tempo and provide rhythmic patterns.
  • Bass (Electric or Upright): Anchors the harmonic progression with foundational low tones.
  • Chordal Instruments: Includes guitar, piano, or keyboards, which provide harmonic support and rhythmic accents.
• Role in the Band: The rhythm section sets the timing, supports the melody, and drives the energy of the performance.

Uses in Music:

• Genres: The rhythm section is essential in virtually all genres, from jazz and rock to funk, reggae, and pop.
• Improvisation: In jazz and similar styles, the rhythm section lays down the framework, allowing soloists to improvise over it.
• Song Dynamics: The rhythm section controls dynamics, such as building tension with a crescendo or creating space with a soft breakdown.

Examples:

• In a classic rock band, the drummer and bassist create a steady groove while the rhythm guitarist plays chords to support the lead guitar and vocals.
• In a jazz trio, the piano, upright bass, and drums form the rhythm section, providing a rich backdrop for melodic improvisation.
• In a pop production, the rhythm section might include programmed beats, synth bass, and rhythmic keyboard layers.

The rhythm section is the engine of a band, ensuring that the music remains cohesive and engaging. A solid rhythm section enhances the groove, supports the melody, and keeps the performance tight, making it an indispensable element of any ensemble.

RIAA

The Recording Industry Association of America is the USA record industry trade body.

RIAA is an abbreviation for the Recording Industry Association of America, which is a trade association that represents the major Distributors and some other Distributors in the United States.

Riff

A riff is a short, repeated musical phrase or pattern, typically played on a lead instrument like a guitar, keyboard, or bass. Riffs serve as a central theme or hook in a song, often driving its rhythm and melody while providing a memorable, recognizable element.

Key Features:

• Repetition: Riffs are designed to be repeated, forming a consistent musical motif throughout the song.
• Catchiness: A good riff is usually simple, distinctive, and easy to remember.
• Instrumental Focus: Riffs are most commonly played by instruments rather than sung, often in genres like rock, blues, funk, and metal.

Uses in Music:

• Main Theme: A riff can be the foundation of a song, such as in rock or blues tracks where the riff defines the overall groove and feel.
• Introductory Hook: Many iconic songs begin with a riff to grab the listener’s attention immediately.
• Improvisation Basis: In jam sessions or live performances, riffs often serve as a starting point for solos or improvisation.

Examples:

• Rock: The guitar riff in Smoke on the Water by Deep Purple is one of the most famous examples.
• Blues: The repeating riff in Mannish Boy by Muddy Waters exemplifies the blues genre’s reliance on riffs.
• Funk: The bass riff in Another One Bites the Dust by Queen highlights the groove-oriented nature of funk-influenced music.

Riffs are integral to creating memorable and engaging music. They often become the defining element of a song, capturing the listener’s attention and providing a sense of identity. Whether simple or complex, a well-crafted riff can elevate a track, making it timeless and iconic.

Right of First Negotiation

This right obligates one party to an agreement to first negotiate with the other party to the agreement for a specified period of time (e.g., 30 days) before making a deal with anyone else.

Example

Under a Demo Deal, the artist may be required to negotiate a recording agreement with the Label fronting the Recording Costs for the demos before the artist can commence any negotiations with any other Label.

Rights Management

Rights management in music refers to the process of tracking, protecting, and monetizing the intellectual property (IP) rights of music creators, including songwriters, composers, performers, and publishers. It ensures that rights holders are properly credited and compensated whenever their work is used.

Key Features:

• Types of Rights:
  • Copyright: Legal ownership of a song or recording, including reproduction, distribution, performance, and derivative work rights.
  • Performing Rights: The right to perform or have a work performed publicly.
  • Mechanical Rights: The right to reproduce and distribute a work in physical or digital form.
  • Synchronization Rights: The right to sync music with visual media, like films or commercials.
• Rights Holders: Includes songwriters, composers, artists, publishers, record labels, and producers.

How It Works:

• Collection Societies and Organizations: Rights management organizations (RMOs) like PRS for Music, ASCAP, BMI, and SoundExchange collect and distribute royalties on behalf of rights holders.
• Licensing: Users of music (e.g., broadcasters, streaming services, venues) obtain licenses to legally use copyrighted material.
• Royalty Distribution: Collected fees are distributed to rights holders based on usage data and agreements.

Examples in Practice:

• A songwriter earns royalties through a performing rights organization (PRO) when their song is played on the radio.
• A record label negotiates sync licenses for using its artists’ music in a movie soundtrack.
• A streaming platform like Spotify pays rights holders for each stream based on licensing agreements.

Rights management is crucial for ensuring that music creators are fairly compensated for their work. It protects their intellectual property, promotes transparency, and sustains the creative ecosystem by incentivizing new music creation. Understanding rights management is essential for artists and industry professionals alike to navigate the complexities of the music business.

Ring-Backs

This is the music recording that you often hear when waiting for someone to answer a telephone call on a mobile phone, instead of the ringing sound that a caller would ordinarily hear after a telephone call has been placed.

Example

Call Waiting

Most often the recording you hear during call waiting is a recorded song.

Ringing Out

Ringing out is a process used particularly in live music environments. The technique is used to stop on-stage microphones from feeding back through monitors/loudspeakers, and maximize signal gain before causing feedback. Feedback is frequency dependent and the exact characteristics relate to venue acoustics. Certain “hot” frequencies may easily resonate, due to room dimensions and audio reflective properties, making those frequencies prone to feedback problems.

The process:

1. Raise gain to induce feedback using mixing desk faders.
2. When feedback happens an equalizer is used to reduce the gain at the frequency the feedback occurs. Typically a graphic equalizer is used.
3. The feedback frequency can easily be identified by using a spectrum analyzer.

This process is repeated until feedback is controlled and output maximised without compromising sound quality.

The use of in-ear monitors can significantly reduce the complexity of multiple microphone, multiple monitor environments.

Hardware solutions can be used to provide many of the same feedback management benefits that you can get via using a ringing out process. For example: room optimization and feedback suppression.

Ringtone

Instead of a ringing sound, this is a recording that the recipient of a telephone call on a mobile phone hears alerting them that they have been called by someone. It normally plays until the phone is answered or the call is diverted to voicemail or a maximum number of normal rings would have occurred.

Ringtones used to be monophonic, single note sequences with simple synthesis. Monophonic ringtones were replaced with polyphonic, multi-simultaneous-note ringtones. These ringtones used chords and simple synthesis engines that had multiple sound generators… but no vocals.

It is now common for ringtones to be clips taken from commercial music Masters. Such ringtones are sometimes called “master tones” or “true tones”.

Because monophonic and polyphonic ringtones reproduce songs, but not the recordings of songs, ringtone companies just needed a Mechanical License from the Publisher(s) of the song. They did not need a Mechanical License from a Record Label or other owner of a Sound Recording copyright.

The Statutory Mechanical Royalty rate for ringtones is currently 24¢ per copy. See:

• www.copyright.gov/carp/m200a.pdf
• www.harryfox.com/public/licenseeRateCurrent.jsp

If a ringtone is just a spoken-word recording, it is sometimes called a “voice tone.”

Many recording contracts are written loosely enough to restrict artists from creating voice tones or musical ringtones for anyone other than the Record Label.

Rise

A section of a song known as the “Rise” because the level of emotion increases. See Pre-Chorus.

Riser

A mini stage is placed on a stage to raise the height of a performer or performers. The most common risers are:

• Drum riser
• Keyboard riser

Other uses are for backing vocal sections and brass sections.

RMS

RMS, or Root Mean Square, is a measurement used in audio to represent the average power or perceived loudness of a signal over time. Unlike peak levels, which capture momentary maximums, RMS gives a more accurate representation of how loud audio sounds to the human ear.

Key Features:

• Perceived Loudness: RMS aligns more closely with how humans perceive volume compared to peak levels, as it accounts for the sustained energy of a signal.
• Dynamic Range: Helps in understanding the balance between the quietest and loudest parts of a track.
• Measuring Units: Typically measured in decibels (dB), RMS values are lower than peak levels since they average the signal’s energy over time.

Uses in Music:

• Mixing and Mastering: RMS is crucial for achieving consistent loudness across tracks while maintaining dynamic range.
• Compression: Audio engineers use RMS to fine-tune compressors, ensuring that sustained sounds are evenly controlled without affecting peaks excessively.
• Broadcast and Streaming: RMS levels are monitored to meet loudness standards and avoid distortion on platforms like Spotify, YouTube, or radio.

Examples:

• A pop track with an RMS of -10 dB will sound louder and more compressed than an acoustic track with an RMS of -16 dB.
• Mastering engineers might aim for specific RMS levels to ensure the track competes with industry standards while preserving its dynamics.
• RMS is used alongside peak measurements to balance loudness and avoid clipping.

RMS is a key metric for managing loudness and dynamics in music production. It ensures that tracks sound clear, consistent, and competitive without sacrificing the emotional impact created by dynamic range. Understanding RMS helps producers and engineers deliver professional-quality audio that translates well across different playback systems.

Roadie / Road Crew

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Roll-Off

Roll-off refers to the gradual reduction or attenuation of certain frequencies in an audio signal, typically implemented using filters like high-pass, low-pass, or band-pass. It defines how sharply the frequencies beyond a specified cutoff point are reduced, creating a smoother transition between the desired and attenuated frequency ranges.

Key Features:

• Cutoff Frequency: The frequency at which the roll-off begins, marking the point where attenuation starts.
• Slope: Measured in decibels per octave (dB/octave), the slope indicates how steeply the frequencies are reduced beyond the cutoff. Common slopes include 6 dB/octave, 12 dB/octave, and steeper settings for more dramatic effects.
• Types of Filters:
  • High-Pass Filter (HPF): Rolls off low frequencies, allowing higher frequencies to pass.
  • Low-Pass Filter (LPF): Rolls off high frequencies, allowing lower frequencies to pass.
  • Band-Pass Filter: Rolls off both high and low frequencies, isolating a specific frequency band.

Uses in Music:

• Mixing and Mastering: Roll-off is used to clean up audio tracks, removing unwanted noise or frequencies that clash with other elements in the mix.
• Live Sound: Helps prevent feedback or excessive bass rumble by rolling off low frequencies.
• Sound Design: Filters with roll-off are used creatively to shape the tone of sounds, such as creating a “telephone effect” by emphasizing midrange frequencies.

Examples:

• A high-pass filter with a gentle roll-off removes low-frequency rumble from a vocal recording.
• A low-pass filter with a steep roll-off is applied to synth pads, softening high-frequency content for a warmer sound.
• A band-pass filter isolates a specific frequency range for an electric guitar, creating a focused tone.

Roll-off is a fundamental concept in audio engineering, offering precise control over the frequency spectrum. It’s an essential tool for cleaning, balancing, and creatively enhancing sounds in music production and live sound environments.

Room Tone

Room tone refers to the subtle ambient sound present in a quiet space when no music or deliberate sound is being produced. It is a natural characteristic of the recording environment, influenced by factors like air movement, electrical hum, and the acoustics of the room itself.

Key Features:

• Background Noise: Room tone is not silence; it includes faint sounds like air conditioning, distant traffic, or the hum of equipment.
• Unique to Each Space: The acoustics and materials in a room (e.g., walls, floors, furniture) shape its tone.
• Recording Necessity: Capturing room tone during recording sessions ensures consistency when editing or mixing audio.

Applications in Music and Audio Production:

• Seamless Edits: Room tone helps blend different audio takes together, masking cuts and ensuring a natural sound.
• Reverb Matching: Engineers use room tone as a reference for adding artificial reverb or effects that match the recording environment.
• Film and TV Post-Production: Room tone is essential for creating a realistic soundscape in dialogue or scene transitions.

Examples:

• During a vocal recording session, room tone might include the faint hum of studio lights or the acoustics of the vocal booth.
• A live recording in a concert hall captures room tone reflecting the space’s large, reverberant quality.
• In post-production, a short recording of room tone is used to fill gaps or smooth transitions in audio tracks.

Room tone is a subtle but vital element in professional audio production. It enhances the realism and cohesion of recordings by maintaining a consistent auditory environment, helping to create a polished and immersive listening experience.

Root Note

The root note is the fundamental note of a chord, scale, or musical key. It serves as the tonal foundation from which the other notes are built and provides a sense of stability and resolution in music.

Key Features:

• Chords: The root note is the note that defines the chord and gives it its name. For example, in a C major chord (C–E–G), the root note is C.
• Scales: A scale is named after its root note, such as the A minor scale or G major scale, and all other notes in the scale relate to this starting point.
• Bass Line: Often, the root note is emphasized in the bass to reinforce the harmonic foundation.

Uses in Music:

• Chord Construction: Chords are built by stacking intervals above the root note. For example, a major chord includes the root, major third, and perfect fifth.
• Improvisation: Musicians use the root note as a reference point when creating melodies or solos within a specific key or chord progression.
• Harmony: The root note anchors harmonic progressions, providing a sense of direction and resolution.

Examples:

• In the chord progression G–C–D, the root notes are G, C, and D, corresponding to the first note of each chord.
• A bass player might emphasize the root notes of a song to provide a solid harmonic foundation.
• In a scale like E minor, the root note is E, and all other notes in the scale are played relative to E.

The root note is the cornerstone of music theory, defining the identity of chords and scales. Understanding root notes helps musicians navigate harmonic structures, compose songs, and improvise effectively, making it a fundamental concept in both theory and practice.

Routing

Routing in music refers to the process of directing audio signals through various paths, devices, or tracks in a recording, mixing, or live performance setup. It is a fundamental aspect of audio engineering and production, enabling creative and technical control over how sound is processed and delivered.

Key Features:

• Signal Flow: The path an audio signal takes from its source (e.g., a microphone or instrument) to its destination (e.g., speakers, headphones, or a recording device).
• Types of Routing:
  • Input Routing: Directing sound sources (e.g., microphones, instruments) to specific channels or tracks.
  • Output Routing: Sending audio to speakers, headphones, or external devices.
  • Internal Routing: Redirecting signals within a mixing console or digital audio workstation (DAW), such as sending a track to an effects bus.

Uses in Music:

• Studio Recording: Routing is used to assign inputs from microphones or instruments to specific tracks in a DAW for multitrack recording.
• Live Sound: Engineers route signals to ensure proper distribution to the main speakers, monitors, and effects processors during a live performance.
• Mixing and Effects: Producers route audio through buses, sends, and returns to apply effects like reverb, delay, or compression.

Examples:

• Routing a vocal mic to a track in a DAW, then sending it through a reverb plugin via an auxiliary send.
• Setting up a live sound system where the kick drum signal is routed to the main speakers and a subwoofer for enhanced low-end.
• Using sidechain routing to apply dynamic processing, such as ducking the volume of a bassline whenever the kick drum hits.

Effective routing is essential for achieving a clean, professional sound in both live and studio environments. It allows audio engineers and producers to organize their workflow, apply creative effects, and ensure that every element of the music is heard as intended. Mastering routing is key to unlocking the full potential of audio systems and production tools.

Royalties

A royalty is a payment made to a songwriter, composer, artist, publisher, or rights holder for the use of their music. Royalties are earned whenever music is sold, streamed, performed, broadcast, or otherwise utilized commercially.

Key Features:

• Types of Royalties:
  • Performance Royalties: Earned when music is played publicly, such as on the radio, at live venues, or on streaming platforms.
  • Mechanical Royalties: Paid for the reproduction or distribution of a musical work, including physical sales (CDs, vinyl) and digital downloads/streams.
  • Synchronization (Sync) Royalties: Paid when music is used in visual media, like films, TV shows, commercials, or video games.
  • Print Royalties: Earned from the sale of sheet music or other printed versions of a musical work.
• Rights Management Organizations: Entities like PRS for Music, ASCAP, BMI, and SoundExchange collect and distribute royalties to rights holders.

How They Work:
Royalties are calculated based on agreements between artists, labels, publishers, and platforms. For example, a streaming service pays a small amount per play, which is divided among songwriters, performers, and publishers.

Examples in Practice:

• A band earns performance royalties when their song is played on a radio station.
• A composer receives mechanical royalties for digital downloads of their music on platforms like iTunes.
• An artist collects sync royalties when their track is featured in a commercial.

Royalties are the primary source of income for many musicians, songwriters, and composers. They ensure that creators are compensated fairly for their work, incentivizing innovation and sustaining the music industry. Understanding royalties is essential for anyone involved in creating, distributing, or managing music.

Royalty Base Price

Traditionally defined as:

RBP = SRLP – Packaging Charge

Where RPB is the Royalty Base Price.

Some Record Labels, such as those within the Sony Music Group, define the royalty base price as:

RBP = PPD – 10% (Distribution Fee) – Packaging Charge

Where PPD is the Wholesale Price of a Record.

Currently, most Labels use:

RBP = PPD

In other words, they have removed the Packaging Charge when calculating the royalty base price.

ROW

Abbreviation for the “rest of the world.”

Runner

The runner is responsible for fetching guitar strings, food, drum heads, rented equipment, or other items that will assist with the comfort of the artist or smooth operation of the studio or session. They may also be asked to deliver items to places like Fed Ex or radio stations.