PA System

A Public Address System is a collection of speakers and amplifiers. PA Systems are used for audio in everything from concert halls, to churches and even your local bar.

Pad

This is a passive network of resistors used to reduce the signal level.

Pan

Pan (short for panning) refers to the process of distributing a sound signal within the stereo field, determining its perceived position from left to right in a stereo mix. Panning does not affect the pitch or tone of the sound but gives it spatial placement, making it seem as though it is coming from a specific direction.

In a stereo setup, two speakers (or headphone channels) deliver separate audio signals. Panning adjusts the volume balance of a sound between these two channels. For instance:

• Panning a sound hard left means it will only play from the left speaker.
• Panning a sound center means it will play equally from both speakers.
• Panning slightly right shifts the balance to make the sound more prominent in the right channel but still audible in the left.

In Music Production:

• Creating Space: Panning prevents all sounds from competing for the same position in the mix, giving instruments and vocals distinct positions in the stereo field.
• Depth and Realism: Proper panning mimics how we perceive sound in real life, adding depth and realism to recordings.
• Focus and Clarity: Placing elements like hi-hats, guitars, or backing vocals at different points in the stereo field reduces muddiness and improves clarity.

Common Uses:

• Vocals are often panned center to remain the focal point.
• Instruments like guitars, synths, and percussion are panned left or right for a balanced stereo image.
• Effects like reverb and delay may be panned for creative impact.

Mastering the art of panning is crucial for achieving professional and immersive mixes.

Pan-Pot

Pan is an abbreviation of the word ‘Panorama’. The Pan pot is used to control the amount of audio signal sent to the left and right channels of a stereo signal pair.

PCM

PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation. This is a digital process for encoding signals.

Peaking

This is the response curve of an equalizer unit that affects a selected band of frequencies. For example a bandpass frequency response.

Pentatonic Scale

A pentatonic scale is a musical scale consisting of five notes per octave, as opposed to the seven notes found in standard diatonic scales. The simplicity and versatility of the pentatonic scale make it one of the most widely used scales in music across genres and cultures.

Types of Pentatonic Scales:

1. Major Pentatonic Scale:

   • Derived from the major scale by omitting the 4th and 7th degrees.
   • Formula: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 (e.g., C Major Pentatonic = C, D, E, G, A).
   • Often associated with uplifting and melodic tunes.

2. Minor Pentatonic Scale:

   • Derived from the natural minor scale by omitting the 2nd and 6th degrees.
   • Formula: 1, ♭3, 4, 5, ♭7 (e.g., A Minor Pentatonic = A, C, D, E, G).
   • Frequently used in blues, rock, and improvisation.

Characteristics and Uses:

• Universal Appeal: The pentatonic scale appears in the music of numerous cultures, including African, Asian, Celtic, and Native American traditions.
• Ease of Use: Its lack of semitones (e.g., E-F or B-C in the diatonic scale) reduces dissonance, making it easier to create melodies and avoid “wrong” notes in improvisation.
• Blues and Rock: The minor pentatonic scale is a foundation of blues and rock soloing, often extended with blues notes (e.g., adding the flat 5).
• Folk and World Music: The scale’s simplicity complements traditional instruments and vocal melodies.

The pentatonic scale is often considered “natural” to the human ear, as its intervals are inherently pleasing and easy to sing.

Example:

If you’re soloing over a C major chord progression, using the C Major Pentatonic scale can add melodic interest without clashing with the harmony.

Performance Rights

Performance rights refer to the legal rights held by songwriters, composers, and music publishers to authorize or deny the public performance of their musical works. These rights are a key part of copyright law and ensure that creators are compensated whenever their music is performed publicly.

What Constitutes a Public Performance?

A public performance can occur in various settings, including:

• Live performances at concerts, festivals, or venues.
• Recorded music played in public spaces like restaurants, bars, or stores.
• Music broadcast on radio, TV, or streaming platforms.
• Online performances, including live streams and virtual events.

Who Collects and Pays for Performance Rights?

Performance rights are managed by Performance Rights Organizations (PROs) or Collective Management Organizations (CMOs), such as:

• PRS for Music (UK)
• ASCAP and BMI (USA)
• SOCAN (Canada)
• APRA AMCOS (Australia)

These organizations collect performance royalties by licensing businesses, broadcasters, and others who use music publicly. The royalties are then distributed to rights holders based on factors like usage data and setlists.

Types of Performance Rights:

1. Small Performance Rights: For non-dramatic music use (e.g., background music or live band performances).
2. Grand Performance Rights: For dramatic works (e.g., operas, musicals).

Why Performance Rights Matter:

• They ensure that creators are fairly compensated for their work.
• They incentivize the creation of new music by providing a revenue stream.

Example:

If a coffee shop plays your recorded song for its customers, the shop owes performance royalties. A PRO like PRS for Music collects these fees and pays you, the songwriter.

Performance Royalties

The income earned from performing a song:

• Over a live stream
• streaming audio
• radio
• television
• concerts
• any other public performances of music

Performing Rights Organization/PRO

These are organizations that collect payments for licensed public performances of songs on behalf of the copyright owners. The collected payments are then paid as royalties to the songwriters and publishers of the performed works.

Example PRO:

ASCAP

BMI

SESAC

PRS for Music

Performing Rights Society/PRS

British music copyright collection society. The Performing Right Society issues licenses for performing music and collects royalties.

PRS is part of British music copyright collective PRS For Music, an umbrella group for PRS and MCPS.

Phantom Power

This is a power signal that can be used to power Condenser Microphones and Active DI Boxes directly from a Mixing Desk. Phantom power is normally in the range 6 to 48 volts DC.

Phase

This is the relationship between two audio signals with respect to time. In Phase, audio signals will reinforce each other, when summed. Out Of Phase audio signals will result in cancellation when summed. See the description of Phase in the article by Ken Lanyon by following the link below.

Songstuff Phase Article

Phaser

A phaser is an audio effect that creates a swirling, sweeping, or whooshing sound by altering the phase relationship of an audio signal. It achieves this by splitting the input signal, shifting the phase of one part, and then combining it back with the original signal, resulting in characteristic peaks and troughs in the frequency spectrum.

How It Works:

• Phase Shifting: The audio signal is passed through a series of filters called all-pass filters, which shift the phase of certain frequencies.
• Comb Filtering: When the phase-shifted signal is mixed back with the original, some frequencies are canceled while others are boosted, creating a comb-like frequency response.
• LFO Modulation: A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) modulates the phase shift over time, producing the sweeping effect.

Parameters of a Phaser:

1. Rate (Speed): Controls how fast the sweep occurs, measured in Hertz (Hz).
2. Depth: Determines the intensity of the effect by controlling how much the phase is shifted.
3. Feedback (Regeneration): Adds a portion of the output signal back into the input, increasing the effect’s resonance.
4. Mix: Balances the wet (effected) and dry (original) signals.

Common Uses of a Phaser:

• Electric Guitar: Adds a dynamic, spacey texture to chords and solos.
• Synths and Keyboards: Creates rich, modulating sounds, often used in electronic music.
• Vocals: Adds a subtle shimmer or dramatic sweeping effect.

Genres and Iconic Examples:

• Widely used in psychedelic rock, funk, and electronic music.
• Example: The guitar in Van Halen’s “Ain’t Talkin’ ’Bout Love” heavily features a phaser effect.
• Example: The swirling texture in the keyboards of Billy Joel’s “Just the Way You Are.”

The phaser is a versatile effect that adds motion, depth, and character to sounds, making it an essential tool in music production and sound design. Its unique modulation can elevate even simple parts into engaging sonic elements.

Phrase

A phrase in music is a short, cohesive musical idea or unit, typically consisting of a series of notes that form a recognizable and complete thought. It is analogous to a sentence in spoken language, conveying a sense of beginning, development, and resolution within a larger musical context.

Characteristics of a Phrase:

• Length: Phrases are often four measures long in Western classical and popular music, but their length can vary.
• Melodic Shape: A phrase often includes a distinct rise and fall in pitch, creating a sense of movement.
• Cadence: Phrases usually end with a cadence, a concluding pattern that provides resolution or signals continuation.

Types of Phrases:

1. Antecedent Phrase: Often called a “question” phrase, it sounds incomplete and leads into the next phrase.
2. Consequent Phrase: Often called an “answer” phrase, it resolves or complements the antecedent. Together, they form a period.

Role in Music:

• Structure: Phrases are the building blocks of larger musical forms like verses, choruses, and entire compositions.
• Expression: Phrases allow performers and composers to shape the music emotionally, with dynamics, articulation, and tempo changes.
• Connection: A well-crafted phrase creates a memorable and engaging musical moment that resonates with listeners.

Example:

In Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5, the iconic four-note motif (da-da-da-daah) is part of a phrase that sets the thematic foundation for the movement.

Tip for Composers and Performers:

When writing or performing, consider each phrase as its own expressive idea. Pay attention to its arc, dynamics, and how it interacts with surrounding phrases to create a cohesive and impactful musical narrative.

Ping Pong

There are two common uses for this term.

Ping Pong (1)

Sometimes called ‘bouncing’ this is the process of freeing up tracks in a multi-track recording by mixing several input racks down into either one (mono) or two (stereo) output tracks. This means that you can record over the original tracks, freeing them for further parts.

Doing this too many times, in the analogue domain, can introduce degradation in signal quality. The added problem is that the sub-mix used to create the bounced track(s) cannot be undone so that mistakes in level or EQ in the sub-mix will be present in the final mix.

Ping Pong (2)

A panning technique where a sound appears to move from one speaker to the other.

Pitch

Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound, determining how high or low it sounds to the human ear. It is one of the fundamental elements of music and forms the basis of melody and harmony.

How Pitch is Measured:

Pitch corresponds to the frequency of sound waves, measured in Hertz (Hz):

• Higher frequency = Higher pitch (e.g., a flute’s sound).
• Lower frequency = Lower pitch (e.g., a bass drum’s sound).

For example, the note A4 (the A above middle C) vibrates at 440 Hz, a standard tuning reference called Concert Pitch.

Types of Pitch:

1. Definite Pitch: Sounds with a clear, measurable frequency (e.g., piano notes, guitar strings).
2. Indefinite Pitch: Sounds without a clear frequency, often perceived as noise (e.g., a snare drum or cymbals).

Role of Pitch in Music:

• Melody: A sequence of pitches played in a particular rhythm forms a melody.
• Harmony: Pitches played simultaneously create chords and harmonies.
• Tuning: Instruments are adjusted to ensure their pitches align with a standard reference.

Pitch Manipulation in Music:

• Pitch Bend: Sliding between pitches, commonly used on instruments like guitars or synthesizers.
• Pitch Correction: Adjusting out-of-tune notes using software like Auto-Tune.
• Transposition: Changing the pitch of an entire piece to fit a different key.

Why Pitch Matters:

Pitch enables musicians to communicate and create music with emotional and cultural resonance. Accurate pitch perception and control are crucial for both performers and composers to express musical ideas effectively.

Example:

In a C Major scale, the pitches are C, D, E, F, G, A, and B, each with a specific frequency and position in the scale.

Pitch Correction

Pitch correction is the process of adjusting the pitch of a vocal or instrumental performance to ensure it is in tune with the intended key or scale. This technique is used in music production to correct off-pitch notes or to achieve a specific vocal effect.

How It Works:

• Detection: The software analyzes the audio input to detect the pitch of individual notes.
• Adjustment: Notes that deviate from the desired pitch are automatically or manually shifted to the correct frequency.
• Real-Time or Post-Production: Pitch correction can be applied live during a performance or in the studio during post-production.

Tools for Pitch Correction:

1. Auto-Tune: A widely used software that offers automatic or manual pitch correction, popularized by artists like T-Pain for its distinctive robotic vocal effect.
2. Melodyne: A powerful tool allowing detailed, manual pitch adjustments, including control over timing, vibrato, and phrasing.
3. Built-In DAW Plugins: Many digital audio workstations (DAWs) include pitch correction features (e.g., Logic Pro’s Flex Pitch).

Uses of Pitch Correction:

1. Subtle Correction: Used to fix small tuning issues in a natural-sounding way.
2. Creative Effect: Applied heavily for stylistic purposes, as in many modern pop, hip-hop, and electronic tracks.
3. Instrument Editing: Adjusting out-of-tune notes in recorded instruments, such as stringed instruments or brass.

Benefits of Pitch Correction:

• Precision: Enhances the overall quality of a performance by ensuring notes are perfectly in tune.
• Efficiency: Reduces the need for re-recording takes due to minor pitch issues.
• Creative Flexibility: Allows producers to experiment with vocal effects and harmonies.

Criticism:

• Overuse of pitch correction can result in a robotic or unnatural sound, potentially detracting from the emotional authenticity of a performance.

Example:

In a pop song, subtle pitch correction can ensure the vocal performance blends seamlessly with the instrumental backing, while a heavy Auto-Tune effect might be applied for a futuristic or stylized sound.

Why It Matters:

Pitch correction has revolutionized music production, allowing for greater flexibility and creative possibilities while ensuring professional-quality results in recordings and live performances.

Platinum Album/Single

The Recording Industry Association of America provides a certificate, certifying that an album/single has sold one million-plus units.

Playback

Playback refers to the process of playing a previously recorded or pre-prepared audio track during live performances, rehearsals, or studio sessions. It is a critical tool in music production and live sound, enabling artists, producers, and engineers to review, refine, or enhance their work.

Uses of Playback:

1. Studio Recording:

   • Used to review and assess takes during the recording process.
   • Helps identify areas for improvement or additional layering.

2. Live Performances:

   • Supports performances with pre-recorded backing tracks, such as additional instruments, vocals, or effects that cannot be played live.
   • Common in genres like pop, electronic, and hip-hop to replicate studio-quality sound on stage.

3. Rehearsals:

   • Allows musicians to practice alongside pre-recorded tracks to synchronize timing, transitions, and arrangements.

4. Film and TV Production:

   • Ensures precise synchronization of music with visual elements during shoots or post-production.

How Playback Works:

• Playback is typically managed through DAWs (Digital Audio Workstations), dedicated playback devices, or samplers.
• In live settings, playback is often controlled by a sound engineer or the artist using devices like laptops, tablets, or loop stations.
• Click tracks or cues may be sent to performers via in-ear monitors to ensure perfect timing.

Benefits of Playback:

• Enhances live performances by incorporating complex arrangements or effects.
• Saves time in the studio by enabling quick review and refinement of recordings.
• Maintains consistency and quality across performances.

Example:

In a concert, a pop artist may sing live over a pre-recorded instrumental and backing vocal playback to recreate the rich production of their studio recordings. Similarly, in the studio, playback is used to compare multiple vocal takes to select the best one.

Playlist

A playlist is a curated collection of songs grouped together for a specific purpose, mood, theme, or activity. Playlists can be created and shared by listeners, artists, or platforms on digital streaming services, social media, or personal devices.

Types of Playlists:

1. Personal Playlists: Curated by individual listeners for personal enjoyment, often categorized by mood (e.g., “Relaxing Tunes”) or activity (e.g., “Workout Mix”).
2. Editorial Playlists: Curated by streaming platforms (e.g., Spotify, Apple Music) with themes such as “New Music Friday” or “Chill Vibes.”
3. Algorithmic Playlists: Generated by algorithms based on listening habits (e.g., Spotify’s Discover Weekly or YouTube Music’s Your Mix).
4. Artist Playlists: Created by artists to showcase their own music or tracks that inspire them.
5. Promotional Playlists: Used by labels, artists, or marketers to promote new releases or highlight specific genres.

Key Features of Playlists:

• Customizable: Users can add, remove, or reorder tracks.
• Shareable: Playlists can often be shared with friends or made public to reach a wider audience.
• Dynamic: Some playlists update automatically (e.g., based on new releases or seasonal themes).

Why Playlists Are Important in Music:

• Discovery: Help listeners find new artists and songs tailored to their preferences.
• Engagement: Encourage users to spend more time on platforms by offering tailored content.
• Promotion: Playlists can significantly boost streams and visibility for artists, especially when featured on popular editorial lists.
• Community: Allow listeners to connect over shared tastes and themes.

Example:

A user might create a “Road Trip” playlist featuring upbeat songs and share it with friends for their upcoming drive. Alternatively, an artist might aim to get their latest single added to a high-profile playlist like Spotify’s RapCaviar for broader exposure.

Why It Matters:

In today’s streaming-driven music landscape, playlists are a critical tool for both listeners and artists. For listeners, they simplify music discovery and enhance the listening experience. For artists, appearing on the right playlist can lead to significant growth in streams, followers, and career opportunities.

Points

In the music industry, points (also called royalty points) refer to the percentage of revenue an individual or entity earns from the sales or streaming income of an album, single, or project. Points are a key part of royalty agreements and are often negotiated as part of an artist’s or producer’s contract.

How Points Work:

1. Definition of a Point: One point equals 1% of the royalty base (e.g., net revenue or wholesale price).
2. Revenue Allocation: Points determine how much an artist, producer, or other stakeholder earns per unit sold or streamed. For example, if an album generates $1,000,000 in net revenue and a producer has 3 points, they earn 3% of that amount ($30,000).
3. Who Gets Points?
   • Artists: Points are typically the primary income source for signed artists.
   • Producers: Often receive 1-5 points, depending on their contribution and reputation.
   • Songwriters and Publishers: Earn royalties from a different pool related to publishing, not album sales.

Key Considerations:

• Recoupment: Artists and producers may not see royalties from points until the label recoups expenses like recording costs, marketing, and advances.
• Negotiation: Points are negotiated during contract discussions, with established artists and producers often commanding higher percentages.
• Streaming Impact: In the era of streaming, point structures may be tied to streams rather than traditional sales, with smaller per-unit earnings but a broader audience reach.

Example:

A producer with 3 points on an album that sells 500,000 copies at a wholesale price of $10 per copy would earn $150,000:
500,000 x $10 = $5,000,000 revenue x 3% = $150,000.

Why Points Matter:

Points incentivize stakeholders to contribute their best work to a project, as their earnings are directly tied to its success. They are a vital component of equitable revenue distribution in the music industry.

Polarity

Polarity describes the orientation of the positive and negative connections of an audio signal.

Polyphony

Polyphony is a musical texture in which two or more independent melodies are played or sung simultaneously. Each melodic line, or voice, retains its individuality while harmonizing with the others, creating a rich and complex sound.

Characteristics of Polyphony:

• Independence: Each voice or melody has its own rhythm, contour, and movement.
• Harmony: The interplay of independent lines often results in harmonious relationships, though dissonance may also be used for effect.
• Counterpoint: A specific type of polyphony in which the melodies are carefully interwoven, often adhering to strict compositional rules.

Examples of Polyphony:

1. Classical Music: The fugues of Johann Sebastian Bach, such as those in The Well-Tempered Clavier, are masterpieces of polyphony, where multiple themes interact dynamically.
2. Vocal Polyphony: Renaissance choral music, like Palestrina’s Missa Papae Marcelli, features interweaving vocal lines sung by different voice parts.
3. Modern Polyphony: Certain genres, like jazz and progressive rock, incorporate polyphonic textures. For instance, The Beatles’ “Paperback Writer” uses polyphonic vocal lines.

Polyphony vs. Other Textures:

• Monophony: A single melody without accompaniment (e.g., solo chant).
• Homophony: A primary melody accompanied by chords or harmonized parts moving in the same rhythm (e.g., hymns).

Polyphony enriches music by adding depth, complexity, and emotional intensity. It encourages listeners to engage with multiple layers of sound, appreciating the interplay between voices.

Polyphony reached its peak during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, but its influence remains central to contemporary music, from orchestral compositions to digital arrangements.

Example:

In Bach’s Fugue in G Minor, multiple voices enter one after another, each presenting the same theme but interweaving in intricate, independent motion.

Pop Filter

A pop filter is a recording accessory, made of cloth, foam or mesh, placed between a vocalist and a microphone to reduce or eliminate popping sounds caused by plosive consonants like “P,” “B,” and “T.” It also helps protect the microphone from moisture caused by saliva, ensuring better sound quality and longevity of the equipment.

The term is also applied to electronic filters that use a high pass filter, with a cutoff at approximately 70Hz to 100Hz, to remove unwanted pops.

How It Works:

• Pop filters are typically made of a circular frame with a layer of thin mesh or perforated metal.
• When a vocalist sings or speaks, the filter diffuses the burst of air from plosives before it hits the microphone diaphragm.
• This prevents the microphone from capturing harsh, low-frequency pops that can distort the recording.

Benefits of Using a Pop Filter:

1. Improved Sound Quality: Eliminates harsh plosive sounds, ensuring a clean vocal recording.
2. Microphone Protection: Shields the microphone from saliva, reducing wear and potential damage.
3. Professionalism: Creates a polished, studio-quality recording environment.

Types of Pop Filters:

1. Mesh Pop Filters: Made with fabric stretched across a frame, offering effective and affordable plosive control.
2. Metal Pop Filters: Durable and easier to clean, with precision-cut holes to diffuse air bursts.
3. Foam Windscreens: Though not technically a pop filter, foam covers can provide additional protection and reduce wind noise for outdoor recordings.

When to Use a Pop Filter:

• Recording vocals in a studio or home setup.
• Capturing voiceovers, podcasts, or audiobooks.
• Anytime a close-mic technique is used, especially with condenser microphones.

Example:

When recording vocals for a song, placing a pop filter a few inches in front of the microphone helps ensure that strong “P” or “B” sounds don’t ruin an otherwise flawless performance. It’s a small but essential tool for achieving professional-grade audio recordings.

Post

A shortened form of “post-production.” It’s a catch-all term covering all production work after capturing the studio performance.

Post-production includes processes like:

• overdubbing
• editing
• signal processing
• effects
• mixing

Post-Fade

This is a point in a Mixing Desk audio signal path after the master or monitor fader. This means that any signal routed Post-Fade will be affected by the fader position.

Power Chord

A power chord is a simple, two- or three-note chord commonly used in rock, punk, metal, and other genres. Unlike traditional chords, which include three or more distinct notes (root, third, fifth, etc.), a power chord consists of just the root note and its fifth, sometimes with an additional octave of the root. This minimal structure creates a strong, bold, and versatile sound.

Structure of a Power Chord:

• Two-Note Power Chord: Root note + Perfect Fifth (e.g., C and G for a C5 power chord).
• Three-Note Power Chord: Root note + Perfect Fifth + Octave of the Root (e.g., C, G, and the higher C).

Notation:

Power chords are often notated with the root note followed by the number “5,” indicating the interval of a perfect fifth (e.g., C5, G5).

How to Play a Power Chord on Guitar:

1. Place your index finger on the root note on the low E or A string.
2. Place your ring finger (and optionally your pinky finger) on the fifth and octave notes, usually on the adjacent strings.
3. Strum only the strings with fretted notes, muting any others.

Characteristics:

• Neutral Tonality: Power chords are neither major nor minor, as they omit the third interval, making them adaptable to various harmonic contexts.
• Simplicity: Easy to play, especially for beginners.
• Heavy Sound: Their clean, bold sound cuts through mixes, particularly in high-gain electric guitar settings.

Power chords are the backbone of many iconic rock and metal riffs, providing drive and intensity while allowing the melody and rhythm to shine.

Example:

The opening riff of Nirvana’s “Smells Like Teen Spirit” and many AC/DC songs like “Back in Black” are built around power chords, showcasing their raw, energetic sound.

Pre Fade Listen (PFL)

This is a circuit on a Mixing Desk that allows the monitoring of a channel, or channels, independently of the main mix. In other words, depressing the PFL button on a mixer will route the pre-fade signal of that channel directly to the monitor outputs. Be careful! Turn down your monitor level before you press the button! You have been warned…

Pre-Chorus

Known as the Climb, Rise, Pre-Chorus, Channel, Prime, or Verse Extension, this specialist type of bridge differs melodically, harmonically, rhythmically and lyrically from the verse and the chorus. Additionally, instrumentation, arrangement, and production can all shift up a gear to help effect the transformation.

This section is called:

1. A Pre-Chorus because it comes before the chorus.
2. A Climb, Rise or Lift as the level of emotion increases.
3. A Build as it builds intensity.
4. A Channel because it channels the listener from verse to Chorus.
5. A Transitional Bridge because it IS a bridge between the verse section and the chorus section.

Not all songs include this section.

Musically, it often uses subdominant or a similar transitional harmony. If both the verse and chorus use the same harmonic structure, this section is used to introduce another harmonic pattern. This helps break up the sections using the same core harmony and keeps the chorus harmonies as fresh as possible.

Lyrically, this section has been used to introduce a pivotal idea or concept that somehow links a verse and chorus. These sections tend to be quite short. Transitional Bridges sometimes change through the song, though often they retain some repetition from previous Transitional Bridges. This, yet again, helps to introduce the feeling of movement through a song.

Pre-Fade

This is a point in a Mixing Desk audio signal path before the master or monitor fader. This means that any signal routed Pre-Fade will not be affected by the fader position.

Pre-Verse

This isn’t often used in current popular music, although it was briefly popular with the American West Coast “Surf Sound” writers of the 1960s. A pre-verse was a particular link section that was used as an interlude between the Introduction section and the first Verse section.

Preamp (Pre-Amplifier)

A preamp, short for preamplifier, is an electronic device that boosts low-level audio signals to a higher, usable level. It is a critical component in recording and live sound setups, ensuring that microphones, instruments, or other sound sources can be processed and amplified without introducing significant noise or distortion.

Function:

• Signal Boost: Converts weak signals (e.g., from a microphone) into line-level signals suitable for further amplification or recording.
• Tone Shaping: Many preamps add color, warmth, or specific tonal characteristics to the sound, enhancing its quality and character.

Types of Preamps:

1. Microphone Preamps: Designed to amplify the output of microphones, often built into audio interfaces or mixers.
2. Instrument Preamps: Tailored for instruments like electric guitars and basses, matching their impedance and boosting their signal.
3. Phono Preamps: Used for turntables to amplify and equalize their signal for playback on modern systems.

Ises in Music Production:

• Recording: Captures clean, high-quality sound from microphones or instruments.
• Live Sound: Ensures that signals are strong and clear enough for mixing and amplification.
• Creative Use: Some preamps are prized for their ability to add desirable harmonic coloration or vintage warmth to a recording.

Analog vs. Digital Preamps:

• Analog Preamps: Often valued for their rich, warm sound, especially in vintage or high-end gear.
• Digital Preamps: Typically found in modern audio interfaces, offering clean amplification with precision and consistency.

Without a preamp, low-level signals might be too quiet to record or amplify properly, resulting in noise and poor sound quality. The preamp is essential for preserving and enhancing the integrity of audio signals.

Example:

When recording vocals, a condenser microphone’s signal passes through a preamp in the audio interface, boosting it to the line level required by a digital audio workstation (DAW) for processing and mixing.

Press Kit

A real-world, physical version of an Electronic Press Kit

Pressure Gradient Microphone

This microphone responds to the difference in pressure (gradient) between the two sides of the microphone diaphragm. The pressure gradient microphone has a characteristic figure-of-eight polar pattern. Also known by the name “velocity microphone”.

Producer/Record Producer

A producer is a creative professional responsible for overseeing and shaping the artistic, technical, and logistical aspects of music recording and production. They work closely with artists, musicians, and engineers to bring a musical vision to life, ensuring the final product aligns with the intended style, sound, and quality.

Roles and Responsibilities:

1. Creative Direction:

   • Collaborating with the artist to define the musical vision and goals.
   • Offering guidance on arrangements, song structure, and overall sound.

2. Technical Oversight:

   • Managing the recording process, including microphone placement, tracking, and editing.
   • Supervising mixing and mastering to achieve the desired sonic quality.

3. Collaboration:

   • Coordinating with session musicians, vocalists, and sound engineers.
   • Mediating between the artist and other team members to maintain focus on the project’s vision.

4. Budget and Scheduling:

   • Managing the production budget and ensuring resources are used efficiently.
   • Scheduling recording sessions and setting project timelines.

5. Problem-Solving:

   • Addressing creative or technical challenges that arise during production.

Types of Producers:

• Music Producer: Focuses on the overall sound and artistic vision of the recording.
• Beat Producer: Specializes in creating beats and backing tracks, common in hip-hop and electronic music.
• Executive Producer: Oversees the financial and logistical aspects of the project.
• Recording Producer: Focuses on capturing high-quality recordings during studio sessions.

Why Producers Matter:

Producers play a pivotal role in transforming raw ideas into polished songs. Their expertise bridges the gap between artistic expression and technical execution, often elevating a project’s quality and marketability.

Example:

Famous producers like Rick Rubin, Quincy Jones, and Finneas have left a profound impact on music by shaping iconic albums and guiding artists to reach their creative potential. For example, Finneas produced Billie Eilish’s When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?, crafting a unique and award-winning soundscape.

Professional Manager

A Professional Manager screens new material for music publishers and gets commercial recordings of songs within the publisher’s catalog.

Promoter/Music Promoter

Someone who promotes live performances for bands. (Sometimes people incorrectly call PR companies and publicists, promoters)

A promoter stages events. They normally bid for rights to stage a concert or a tour and recoup their outlay through ticketing and sub-licensing. Promoters assess each potential gig, before deciding if they want to book local shows in each territory. It’s a gamble. They gamble that the band can sell enough tickets to justify the gig and make a profit.

Promoters receive a set fee and a share of the net ticket sales, i.e. after costs are deducted. This us because the promoter has to invest money in a show to make it happen. They have to cover costs like venue hire, the PA system, lighting and the local road crew needed to run them. The promoter also pays for the band’s food and drink. Sometimes costs also include flights and accommodation for the band and road crew.

If ticket sales are poor, then there is a good chance the promoter has lost money.

It serves the promoters to get fans to the show. A good promoter will use an online marketing strategy, have posters put up all over town and advertise the gig on local radio stations and magazines. In short he ‘promotes’ the show, hence his job title.

This all costs a promoter more money. The larger the show, the bigger the gamble and the more the Promoter must invest to promote it.

A Booking Agent (a.k.a. a Talent Agent)
negotiates with the Promoter on behalf of the artist. The Promoter then signs a contract with a Booking Agent, in order to book and stage a live performance.

In addition to Promoter’s agreement with the Booking Agent, the Promoter also signs a contract with each Venue and all of the vendors who provide services for each concert the Promoter promotes. Vendors hired by the Promoter could include companies that provide security, backstage caterers, lighting operators, and stagehands. The Artist also engages additional vendors.

Promoters that are a part of Live Nation or AEG are often affiliated with the company that owns the Venue.

A good local promoter has to keep up with which bands are up and coming, which bands are getting good press, which bands get requested at local venues and which band’s Merch gets worn by the audiences who visit his Venues.

A good Promoter has to be smart. Smart enough to weigh up what he is gambling in order to place his bet at the right level.

Promotion

Promotion in the music industry refers to the process of increasing awareness and interest in a musician, song, album, or event through strategic marketing and communication efforts. The goal is to connect artists with their audience, drive engagement, and boost sales, streams, and ticket purchases.

Key Aspects of Music Promotion:

1. Digital Marketing:

   • Leveraging social media platforms (e.g., Instagram, TikTok, YouTube) to build a fanbase and share content.
   • Running paid ads or organic campaigns to increase visibility.
   • Using email newsletters to communicate directly with fans.

2. Public Relations (PR):

   • Sending press releases to media outlets, blogs, and influencers.
   • Securing interviews, reviews, and features to generate buzz.

3. Radio and Streaming:

   • Pitching songs to radio stations and playlists on platforms like Spotify and Apple Music.
   • Partnering with curators or promoters for broader reach.

4. Live Events and Tours:

   • Promoting concerts, tours, and live-streamed performances through posters, social media, and event platforms.

5. Collaborations:

   • Partnering with other artists, influencers, or brands to expand audiences and reach new fans.

Tools and Strategies for Promotion:

• Content Creation: Releasing engaging music videos, behind-the-scenes footage, or lyric videos.
• SEO and Website Management: Optimizing artist websites and online profiles for discoverability.
• Fan Engagement: Hosting Q&A sessions, giveaways, or exclusive listening parties to deepen fan relationships.

Why Promotion is Crucial:

• It creates momentum around a release or event, increasing its chances of success.
• It helps build and maintain an artist’s brand and visibility in a competitive industry.
• It attracts new listeners while keeping existing fans engaged and loyal.

Example:

A well-executed promotion campaign for a new single might include a social media teaser, a lyric video release, playlist pitches, and interviews with local radio stations—all aimed at driving streams and building excitement.

Promotion Budget

A promotion budget refers to the allocated financial resources specifically set aside for marketing and promotional activities related to an artist, song, album, or event. This budget is crucial for building awareness, generating buzz, and driving engagement with the target audience.

Components of a Promotion Budget:

1. Digital Marketing:

   • Social media ads (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, TikTok).
   • Sponsored posts or influencer partnerships.
   • Search engine ads or YouTube pre-roll ads.

2. Traditional Advertising:

   • Print ads in magazines or newspapers.
   • Radio and TV spots.
   • Billboards or posters in key locations.

3. Content Creation:

   • Music videos, lyric videos, and live session recordings.
   • Graphic design for promotional materials (e.g., album covers, posters).
   • Behind-the-scenes or documentary-style content.

4. Public Relations (PR):

   • Hiring a PR agency or publicist to secure interviews, reviews, and press features.
   • Organizing media events or launch parties.

5. Promotional Events:

   • Costs for hosting live shows, listening parties, or fan meet-and-greets.
   • Travel and accommodation for tours or media appearances.

6. Playlisting and Streaming:

   • Pitching songs to playlist curators.
   • Utilizing paid promotional services on platforms like Spotify or Apple Music.

Why a Promotion Budget is Important:

• Visibility: Ensures that music reaches a broad and targeted audience.
• Impact: Well-funded campaigns can significantly boost streams, sales, and fan engagement.
• Longevity: Sustained promotional efforts can keep a release relevant for longer periods.

Example:

An artist with a $10,000 promotion budget for an album might allocate $4,000 for a music video, $3,000 for social media ads, $2,000 for a publicist, and $1,000 for playlist pitching services.

Tips for Managing a Promotion Budget:

• Prioritize platforms and activities that align with your target audience.
• Monitor campaign performance and adjust spending for the best ROI (return on investment).
• Plan for both pre-release and post-release promotions.

Why It Matters:

A well-planned promotion budget maximizes an artist’s visibility and career growth, ensuring that their creative work reaches the right audience at the right time. It’s an essential tool for building momentum and achieving long-term success in the music industry.

Proration

Prorated royalties come up when an Artist, Producer, Mixer, or other royalty recipient is not due a royalty for all of the recordings on a Record.

An example of this would be where the Artist Royalty for a Compilation Album will be prorated. This is done by multiplying the otherwise applicable Artist Royalty rate by a fraction:

n/T

Where:

n = number of recordings on the Album that feature the artist

T = total number of recordings on the Album.

Prosody

• patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry or song
• patterns of emphasis, stress, and intonation in a language
• the way the syllables of the words of a song align with notes in the melody to which those words are sung, or the alignment of the music with lyrical ambiance.
• The appropriate relationship between song elements, whatever they may be.

In music, prosody refers to the alignment between the emotional tone and meaning of lyrics and the accompanying melody, rhythm, and harmony. It is the art of making a song’s music and words work together seamlessly to enhance its emotional impact and storytelling.

Key Aspects of Prosody in Songwriting:

1. Melodic Match:

   • The rise and fall of the melody should reflect the emotional highs and lows of the lyrics.
   • Example: A soaring melody might emphasize joy or triumph, while descending notes could suggest sadness or defeat.

2. Rhythmic Match:

   • The rhythm of the melody should mirror the natural rhythm of spoken language.
   • Example: Stressed syllables in the lyrics should often align with strong beats in the music.

3. Harmonic Match:

   • The harmony and chords should support the mood of the lyrics.
   • Example: Major chords for happy or uplifting lyrics, minor chords for sad or introspective themes.

4. Dynamic Match:

   • Changes in volume, tempo, and articulation can reflect shifts in the lyrics’ intensity or meaning.
   • Example: A gradual crescendo might underscore a build-up of tension in the story.

Importance of Prosody:

• It enhances the listener’s emotional connection to the song.
• It ensures that lyrics feel natural and impactful when paired with the music.
• It helps create memorable and meaningful songs that resonate deeply with audiences.

Examples of Prosody in Practice:

• In Adele’s “Someone Like You,” the melancholic melody, minor-key harmony, and slow tempo perfectly reflect the heartbreak conveyed in the lyrics.
• The upbeat tempo and major key in Pharrell Williams’ “Happy” reinforce the joyful and carefree nature of the song’s lyrics.

Good prosody makes a song feel authentic and cohesive, while poor prosody can make even great lyrics or melodies feel disjointed or ineffective. It’s a vital skill for songwriters aiming to craft songs that truly connect with listeners.

Proximity Effect

This is the increase in low-frequency response that occurs as a source gets close to a Pressure-gradient microphone.

Pressure–gradient microphones include all directional mics, such as ribbon microphones and multi-directional condenser microphones.

PRS
See Performing Rights Society

PRS for Music

British music copyright collective made up of two collection societies: the Performing Rights Society (PRS) and the Mechanical Copyright Protection Society (MCPS). PRS for Music carries out collective rights management for approximately 140,000 members.

Public Domain

In different jurisdictions, this might have different implications and qualifications or be known by a different name. In essence, it means that the material is not copyright controlled. This happens when copyright expires or in many jurisdictions when the owner explicitly releases the material into the public domain.

Public domain refers to creative works, including music, that are no longer protected by copyright law and can be freely used, copied, performed, or distributed by anyone without needing permission or paying royalties. Works in the public domain are considered a part of the cultural commons and are available for public use.

How Music Enters the Public Domain:

1. Expiration of Copyright:
   • In many countries, a musical work enters the public domain a set number of years after the death of its creator. For example:
     • In the United States: Typically 70 years after the creator’s death.
     • In the European Union: Also 70 years posthumously.
   • Some older works (e.g., published before 1924 in the U.S.) are already in the public domain.
2. Creator’s Decision:
   • Some artists or composers may choose to release their work directly into the public domain.
3. Non-Copyrightable Work:
   • Facts, ideas, or very simple works (like short jingles or melodies) may not qualify for copyright protection and are effectively public domain.

Examples of Public Domain Music:

• Classical compositions by Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart.
• Traditional folk songs like “Greensleeves” or “Scarborough Fair.”
• Early jazz standards published before copyright laws were standardized globally.

Uses of Public Domain Music:

• Performances: Orchestras and musicians can perform these works without paying royalties.
• Adaptations: Creators can freely adapt or rearrange public domain works.
• Film and Media: Public domain music is often used in films, commercials, and TV shows to save on licensing costs.

Importance of Public Domain:

• It fosters creativity by allowing artists to build upon existing works.
• It ensures that cultural heritage remains accessible to everyone.

Example in Practice:

An artist might record and release a new arrangement of Beethoven’s “Fur Elise” without needing to pay royalties or secure permissions, as the original composition is in the public domain.

Why It Matters:

The public domain plays a crucial role in preserving cultural history and supporting creative innovation, providing a foundation for new works and ensuring that older creations remain a shared resource for all.

Public Performance Royalties

Public Performance Royalties are the income stream that is generated as a direct result of performance rights. Performance rights control the permission to perform the song by any means. This includes broadcasting a song on the radio, television, or playing it in a nightclub, or at a concert etc.

Publication

Under U.S. Copyright Law, publication of a song is considered to be the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending.

Publicist

Someone who creates awareness of an artist, project or person.  Publicists are usually responsible for getting articles about the project into the press and media, including:

• Magazines
• Newspapers
• Internet articles
• Blogs
• TV
• Radio
• Podcasts

Publisher/Music Publisher

Originally, a music publisher was a company that published sheet music. Since then, recordings have become more important than printed sheet music. Most publishers actively try to place songs in revenue-generating positions, like advertisements or with other artists for a cover version, etc.

As a result Music Publishers invest in writers, promote songs and collect earnings from Publishing Copyrights.

The term “Publisher” typically refers to the person or company that controls the Administration Rights for one or more songs.

Publisher’s Share

The Publisher’s Share is the share of income, created by exploiting a song, that is due to the publisher when the Songwriter’s Royalties have been deducted.

Publishing Administration

Publishing administration is limited to royalty collection—the publisher will not get additional customers for the compositions. The rate for simple administration, registering songs, collecting and distributing fees and royalties, is normally about 10%.

Many modern Administration Agreements are frequently fairly short term, there is no long-term binding and no transfer of ownership.

Publishing Agreement/Publishing Deal

A legal agreement relating to one or more of the Publishing Administration Rights for one or more songs is granted or otherwise addressed via the agreement.

Publishing Agreements place a person or company in charge of making sure the correct royalties are collected for a song, in exchange for a portion of those royalties and some rights to the song. They also do much more. Publishing Agreements also cover the exploitation of the copyrighted material, the creation of opportunities and the negotiation of fees, permissions and other terms. They also include pitching songs to artists to arrange covers, to movie and television producers to place the song in a movie or TV program or advertisement

Typical agreements where Administration Rights are granted:

• Publishing Agreement
• Administration Agreement
• Subpublishing Agreement
• Co-Publishing Agreement
• Songwriter Agreement
• Print Agreement

Agreements where Administration Rights are otherwise addressed:

• Co-Administration Agreement

Publishing Rights

Publishing rights refer to the legal rights associated with the ownership, control, and monetization of a musical composition, including the melody, lyrics, and structure of the song. These rights belong to the songwriter(s) and/or the music publisher and are a key part of music copyright law.

Key Components of Publishing Rights:

1. Mechanical Rights: Cover the reproduction of a song, such as pressing CDs, vinyl records, or digital downloads.
2. Performance Rights: Govern the public performance of a song, whether live, on the radio, or via streaming platforms.
3. Synchronization (Sync) Rights: Allow the use of a song in audiovisual media, such as movies, TV shows, commercials, and video games.
4. Print Rights: Apply to the printing and sale of sheet music.

Who Owns Publishing Rights?

• Initially, the songwriter owns the publishing rights.
• A music publisher may acquire partial or full ownership in exchange for promoting the song and managing its licensing and royalties.

How Publishing Rights Generate Income:

• Performance Royalties: Paid when a song is performed publicly or streamed.
• Mechanical Royalties: Paid when a song is reproduced (e.g., sold as a download or physical product).
• Sync Fees: Paid when a song is licensed for use in film, TV, or other media.
• Print Royalties: Earned from the sale of sheet music.

Why Publishing Rights Matter:

• They are a primary revenue source for songwriters and composers.
• They protect intellectual property, ensuring creators are fairly compensated for their work.
• Managing publishing rights allows for the strategic placement and promotion of songs in various markets.

Example:

A songwriter who owns their publishing rights will receive royalties every time their song is streamed on Spotify, played on the radio, performed live, or licensed for a TV commercial. If they sign with a publisher, that publisher helps license the song in exchange for a share of the royalties.

Punch In

To ‘Punch In’ or ‘Drop In’ is to start a new recording on a track that already has a recorded part on it. Punch-Ins can be automated to start by setting record mode to start at a given time or musical bar. The opposite process, ‘Punch Out’ or ‘Drop Out’ occurs at the point where the recording has to stop.

PX Sales

PX Sales are records sold for sale on military bases.

Nearly all Recording Agreements set a reduced Artist Royalty rate, for the artist, for any PX Sales.