Cadence

This is the concluding phrase either at the end of a section of melody, or the end of the complete melody.

There are some standard cadence formulae:

Perfect – dominant to tonic

Imperfect – tonic to dominant

Plagal – subdominant to tonic

Interrupted – dominant to something other than tonic

CAE

Originally devised by the national society of Switzerland, SUISA, Compositeur Auteur Editeur (French language for Composer, Author, Publisher) is the international, 9 digit ID code once used to identify rights holders in the field of music rights management..

The CAE code It is being phased out to be replaced by the IPI code.

Call And Response

Call and Response is a musical technique where one musical phrase (the call) is immediately followed by a responding phrase (the response). This interaction can occur between a leader and a group, between two soloists, or even between two sections of an ensemble. The call and response pattern is dynamic and interactive, creating a conversational feel within the music.

This technique is widely used across genres, from gospel and blues to jazz, rock, and hip-hop. In traditional African music, call and response is deeply rooted and has influenced many genres in Western music. It’s also commonly heard in folk music, work songs, and even in classical compositions.

Key characteristics of call and response:

• Dialogue: The phrases often mimic a conversation, with the response phrase complementing or answering the call.
• Variation and Imitation: Responses might directly echo the call or creatively vary it, adding improvisational flair.
• Rhythmic Syncopation: In some genres, especially jazz and hip-hop, call and response involves rhythmic syncopation, creating a back-and-forth that feels spontaneous and lively.

For example, in a live jazz performance, a trumpet player might play a riff (the call), and a saxophone might respond with its own interpretation of that riff. In vocal music, a soloist might sing a line that the choir echoes or answers. Call and response engages the audience and performers alike, bringing energy and unity to musical performances and making it a fundamental technique across cultures and genres.

Call To Action

Statement that both motivates and encourages website visitors to participate and take action. This could be filling out a form, signing up for a mailing list or making a purchase.

Cans

‘Cans’ is just another name for headphones.

Capacitor

A capacitor is an electronic component that is capable of storing electric charge. Amongst the many uses for these components are there use in analogue filter circuits and the Capacitor Microphone.

Capacitor Microphone

The Capacitor microphone is also called a Condenser or Electrostatic microphone. The audio signal is generated by the variations in the capacitance between one or two diaphragms and a fixed plate. Normally this kind of microphone will require either a battery or external power source to provide a polarizing voltage. This kind of mike is commonly used for high quality audio applications.

Capo

A capo is a small device that clamps onto the neck of a stringed instrument, such as a guitar, to raise the pitch of the strings. By pressing the strings down at a specific fret, the capo effectively shortens the length of the strings, allowing musicians to play in different keys without changing their finger positions for chords. This can make playing certain songs easier and provides more flexibility in matching vocal ranges.

Common uses and benefits of a capo:

• Changing Key: By shifting the capo up or down the neck, musicians can play in a higher key without learning new chord shapes.

• Ease of Playing: A capo allows players to use familiar open chord shapes even in keys that would otherwise require more challenging barre chords.

• Creating Unique Sounds: Using a capo higher up the neck can produce a brighter, more chiming sound, often used in folk, pop, and acoustic music for added texture.

Capos are especially popular among guitarists and ukulele players but can also be used on other fretted instruments. To use a capo, simply place it on the desired fret and tighten it to hold down all the strings evenly. Capos are available in different styles, including clamp, trigger, and adjustable screw types, each offering varying levels of ease and control.

Whether adjusting to a vocalist’s key or experimenting with new sounds, a capo is a versatile tool that enhances an instrument’s range and the musician’s creative possibilities.

Capstan

The Capstan is the drive spindle on a tape machine.

Cardioid Microphone

This is a unidirectional microphone. The name is derived from the distinctive polar (microphone directional response) pattern, which resembles a heart shape.

Catalog / Catalogue

1. Distributors – The catalogue of a distributor refers to the entire collection of products they have distribution rights for.
2. Music Publishers – The catalogue of a music publisher is the entire collection of works that they control the publishing rights to.
3. Record Labels – The catalog of a record label is the entire collection of master recordings (audio and audio visual) they own or otherwise control.

CatCo

UK – An electronic system for sending details of recordings from record labels to PPL and MCPS for inclusion in the PPL Repertoire Database.

CatCo is owned by PPL and is free to PPL members.

Certificate of Authorship

Short-form agreement, usually in relating to a long-form agreement, asserting that a work is a “work made for hire”. A certificate of authorship is submitted to the United States Copyright Office, so that the owner of the copyrighted work can avoid publicly disclosing the terms of the long-form agreement.

Normally scoring for a motion picture starts well before the long-form agreement is fully agreed. The composer is normally required by the producer to sign a Certificate of Authorship before any money is paid to them in relation to the work in question. It also means the composer cannot claim an infringement of his copyright if the long-form agreement doesn’t get signed.

Channel (Song Section)

A section of a song, known as the “Channel” because it channels the listener from verse to Chorus. See Pre-Chorus.

Chase Lock Sync

The slave “chases” the master by rewinding and fast forwarding till it gets to the right location. Used with SMPTE.

Chord

A chord is a group of three or more notes played simultaneously, creating a harmony that adds depth and character to a piece of music. Chords are the building blocks of harmony in Western music and are foundational in almost every genre, from classical and jazz to pop and rock.

Chords are typically built from a root note (the main note that gives the chord its name) and additional notes stacked in specific intervals above the root. These intervals often follow the structure of thirds, meaning each note in the chord is a third above the previous one.

There are several types of chords, each with its own sound and mood:

• Major Chord: Has a bright, happy sound. It consists of a root, a major third, and a perfect fifth.

• Minor Chord: Has a darker, sadder sound, made up of a root, a minor third, and a perfect fifth.

• Diminished Chord: Often sounds tense or unstable, using a root, a minor third, and a diminished fifth (a half step lower than a perfect fifth).

• Augmented Chord: Has a unique, slightly unsettling sound, built from a root, a major third, and an augmented fifth (a half step higher than a perfect fifth).

• Seventh Chord: Adds a fourth note to the chord—a seventh above the root—creating a richer, more complex sound.

Chords form the harmonic foundation of a song and can evoke a wide range of emotions. In chord progressions (a series of chords played in sequence), they guide the music’s direction and create the song’s emotional arc. Musicians use chords to structure songs, build tension and release, and support the melody, making them essential to composition and performance.

If only 2 notes are played at the same time the third note is implied.

Chorus

In music, chorus has three main meanings, depending on the context:

1. Singers: Another name for a group of singers where there are more than 1 singer performing each part.
2. Audio Effect:  In music production, chorus refers to an audio effect used to make a sound fuller and richer. This effect works by duplicating the original audio signal, slightly detuning or delaying the copies, and then blending them back together. This creates a lush, layered sound, as if multiple voices or instruments are playing simultaneously. The chorus effect is commonly used on guitars, vocals, and keyboards to add depth and texture, giving a sound a sense of space and warmth.
3. Song Section: In songwriting, the chorus is the part of a song that typically contains the main theme or message and is often the most memorable section. It’s usually repeated multiple times, with the same melody and lyrics, making it easy for listeners to sing along. The chorus often follows verses and builds on their ideas, serving as the emotional or thematic high point of the song. Commonly, it’s the part that includes the song’s hook or catchy phrase.
4. The chorus is intended to be the most memorable part of the song. It is repeated several times so that it sticks in your mind. Several other tricks are used to help it stick.

Commonly a chorus: Contrasts with the verse, rhythmically, melodically, lyrically, harmonically, and/or dynamically. A chorus is repeated at least once, both musically and lyrically. Usually several times. It is more intense and has more energy. A chorus usually has a greater musical and emotional intensity than a verse.

Lyrically: The main message and /or concept is expressed in the chorus.

The title / main hook of the song is usually included in the chorus.

The chorus is often a conclusion about the main theme, or a comment about it.The hook is often at it’s best when it is a good tag line or slogan representing the song. The chorus is the best place to showcase the tag line. The chorus is repeated for good reason. Repeating anything makes it more memorable. That is why you want your tag line here. It is also why you want the Song Title to be the main hook, and why you are wise to put some effoirt into finding the right hook / title… because it ends up being used so often in the song, and anything worth devoting that much song real estate had better be good.

Take a look at our article “Creating A Song Title” for more in-depth details about choosing a suitable title.Most songs start with an introduction and then the verse. Some songs will start with the chorus, or with an introduction based upon the chorus theme, or with the full chorus.

CHR

Contemporary Hit Radio is also known as top 40 radio.

Chromatic

In essence the use of “accidental” notes.

Chromatic Scale

A musical scale where the consecutive notes are separated by a semi-tone interval.

CISAC

The International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers (French: Confédération Internationale des Sociétés d’Auteurs et Compositeurs, CISAC) advocates for strong legal protection of copyright and authors’ rights. It is the world’s largest Collective Management Organisation (CMO), a network of copyright and royalty collection societies, collecting societies, and Performing Rights Organisations (PROs).

www.cisac.org

Clearance

The right to use music depends on it being cleared with the copyright owners, i.e. Permission must be given by the copyright owners before you use a copyrighted work. Clearance is needed for more than commercial use. Terms for clearance are negotiated through collection societies, record labels or publishers.

Clef

A clef is a symbol placed at the beginning of a musical staff that indicates the pitch range of the notes on that staff. The clef essentially “anchors” the notes, showing musicians which lines and spaces correspond to which notes on the musical scale. Different clefs are used to accommodate the range of various instruments and voices, allowing them to read music comfortably within their pitch.

There are three main types of clefs:

1. Treble Clef (G Clef): The most commonly used clef, it spirals around the second line of the staff, indicating that this line represents the note G above middle C. The treble clef is used for higher-pitched instruments like the violin, flute, trumpet, and for the right hand on the piano.

2. Bass Clef (F Clef): The bass clef is marked by two dots surrounding the fourth line of the staff, showing that this line represents the note F below middle C. It is used for lower-pitched instruments like the bass guitar, tuba, cello, and for the left hand on the piano.

3. Alto and Tenor Clefs (C Clefs): These clefs place middle C on different lines of the staff, and are commonly used for mid-range instruments. The alto clef, where middle C is on the third line, is mainly used by violas. The tenor clef, where middle C is on the fourth line, is often used by bassoons, cellos, and trombones when they play in higher ranges.

Clefs make reading music easier by keeping most notes within a convenient range on the staff. Musicians learn to read the clef that matches their instrument, helping them quickly interpret pitch and play accurately.

Click Track

This is an audio track that contains a metronome beat at the tempo of the music. This allows musicians to synchronise acurately to a film or parts recorded during another performance.

Climb

A section of a song, known as the “Climb” because the level of emotion increases. See Pre-Chorus

Clipping

Distortion due to overloading of an audio signal. In the Analogue domain this is normally caused by the peak signal voltage being limited by the audio circuits’ power supply voltage. In the Digital domain, clipping occurs at 0dB.

Co-Administration Agreement

A type of publishing agreement between music publishers, where each has administration rights over part of the song. As an example, this could be an official mash up, or where co-writers are signed to different publishers.

Co-Publishing Agreement

A type of publishing agreement where the songwriter, or their publishing company, agrees to share the copyright of one or more songs with another publisher. The music publisher they share copyright with is also granted exclusive administration rights for the song(s) governed by the agreement.

Co-Writer

A songwriting partner. Without a governing contract, all co-writers jointly own an equal share of a work. A governing contract can override the percentage share of ownership.

CODA

Coda is an Italian word for “tail”. These are the closing lines of a song which brings it to a close. It is not uncommon for the Coda to include aspects of both Ad Lib and collision sections. The coda is an optional addition to a song.

Collaborator

A contributing creative partner involved in writing a song or piece of music.

Collection Costs

Legal fees and other costs incurred when a lawsuit is necessary to collect money agreed in contract and, when an audit is deemed necessary, the fees and other costs charged by the auditor.

Collection Societies

Collection societies issue licenses to music users and share the collected license fees among copyright owners (normally record labels, publishers, writers and performers).

Collision

A collision is a song section where different parts of music overlap with each other. Collisions do not tend to last very long, and usually they occur towards the end of the song. It creates tension and drama which makes it ideal to use during one of the later chorus sections. A common source of collision themes to collide with the chorus theme are the middle eight and the pre-chorus melodies.

Coloration (Colouration)

Coloration is the change in frequency response caused by resonance.

Commercially Satisfactory

A common term in recording agreements. When an artist hands over a contracted recording, or set of recordings (as per the recording agreement), it will not be considered as “delivered” until the record label believe the record could realistically sell a commercially significant number of units. This measure is a subjective decision, where the judgment about an anticipated number of unit sales is what is deemed “commercially satisfactory”. The judgement is made by the record label. For some record contracts, if the record is stylistically similar to previous recordings from the artist, and it is of a good quality, the record is deemed to be “delivered”.

Common-Law / Poor Man’s Copyright

In the USA, this is the underlying protection for a song based upon the common laws of the various individual states. On January 1, 1978 Common-Law Copyright was replaced by a national copyright system .

Compilation Album

An album containing recordings by more than one artist.

Comping

This is the process of creating a single, composite recording from a number of ‘takes’. This can be done in both the analogue and digital domains.

Composer

Someone who writes music.

Composition

A creative work, especially music.

Compound/Hybrid Song Form

Compound song forms use a blend of two or more song forms together within one song. This is a combination of two or more song form structural concepts where a base song form is used to describe the overall song architecture, and the structural concept of other song forms are is inserted into the base song form, replacing one of the existing named sections.

Compression

Compression is an audio processing technique used to control the dynamic range of a sound, making the quieter parts louder and the louder parts quieter. By smoothing out these volume differences, compression helps create a more balanced and polished sound, making it essential in both recording and live performance.

In music production, a compressor (the device or software used for compression) automatically reduces the volume of audio signals that exceed a certain threshold. This process helps keep sounds from peaking too high or dropping too low, allowing for a more consistent listening experience. Compression is widely used on vocals, instruments, and even entire mixes to ensure clarity and cohesion.

Key elements of compression include:

• Threshold: The level at which the compressor starts to reduce volume. Signals louder than the threshold are compressed, while those below are unaffected.

• Ratio: Determines the intensity of the compression. For example, a 4:1 ratio means that for every 4 decibels (dB) above the threshold, only 1 dB will be output.

• Attack: The speed at which compression is applied after the signal exceeds the threshold. A fast attack captures sudden peaks, while a slower attack allows some of the transient (initial) sound through before compressing.

• Release: The speed at which the compressor stops reducing volume after the signal falls below the threshold.

• Makeup Gain: After compression, this control boosts the overall signal to bring it back to an appropriate volume.

Compression is key in modern music production, used to add punch to drums, smoothness to vocals, and overall balance to mixes. When used effectively, it can enhance a track’s impact without sacrificing dynamics.

Compressor

A compressor is a device for automatically controlling the level of an audio signal. This has the overall effect of reducing the dynamic range of the source signal. See our guide to Compression below.

Songstuff Compression Article

Comps

Complimentary tickets to a concert.

Compulsory License

In the USA, an exception to the copyright holder’s exclusive rights of reproduction and distribution is made such that when a song is published in the USA, anyone can record a commercial cover version of it provided the appropriate mechanical license rates are paid to the copyright owner of the original work.

Concert Pitch

Concert Pitch refers to the standard tuning reference frequency used by musicians and orchestras to ensure all instruments are in tune with each other. The most commonly accepted concert pitch is A=440 Hz, meaning the note A above middle C vibrates at 440 cycles per second. This standardized pitch provides a consistent reference point, allowing musicians worldwide to tune accurately and perform together in harmony.

Concert pitch is important because instruments can naturally vary in pitch due to factors like temperature, humidity, and the instrument’s design. By tuning to a specific pitch standard, musicians across different instrument families—strings, woodwinds, brass, and more—can blend smoothly and sound cohesive.

Key aspects of concert pitch include:

• Tuning Reference: Instruments tune to the same frequency (A=440 Hz or another agreed-upon standard), ensuring consistency in pitch.

• Historical Variations: Historically, concert pitch varied across regions and eras; for example, Baroque music is often played at A=415 Hz, slightly lower than modern concert pitch, to reflect the original tuning practices.

• Alternative Standards: Some orchestras or genres might use a slightly higher pitch (e.g., A=442 Hz) for a brighter sound, though A=440 Hz remains the most widely recognized standard.

Concert pitch simplifies collaboration, as musicians can rely on a shared tuning foundation. In a live setting, one instrument (often a piano or an oboe in orchestras) sets the pitch, with others tuning to match. This standardization helps ensembles achieve a balanced, unified sound and provides a reliable baseline for music practice and performance worldwide.

Condenser

Another name for a Capacitor Microphone.

Consignment

Agreement where the retailer only pays the artist for sold inventory. This includes media and merchandise. Commonly, the retailer holds stock in reserve. When a sale is made, the retailer purchases the product from the reserve stock to make the sale.

Contrapuntal Motion

Contrapuntal motion refers to the way in which two or more independent melodic lines, or voices, move in relation to each other within a piece of music. It is a fundamental aspect of counterpoint, a compositional technique where different musical lines interact harmonically while maintaining their own unique melodies. Contrapuntal motion is key to creating the dynamic, interwoven sound characteristic of contrapuntal music.

There are four main types of contrapuntal motion:

1. Parallel Motion: Both voices move in the same direction by the same interval (e.g., both moving up by a third). While useful, parallel motion is often used sparingly in counterpoint to avoid losing the independence of each voice.

2. Contrary Motion: The voices move in opposite directions—one goes up while the other goes down. This is the most commonly used motion in counterpoint, as it maintains a strong sense of independence between voices and adds tension and release to the harmony.

3. Oblique Motion: One voice stays on the same note while the other moves either up or down. Oblique motion is useful for creating a stable, grounding effect and is often used at moments where one voice emphasizes a particular note while the other adds movement.

4. Similar Motion: Both voices move in the same direction but by different intervals (e.g., one voice moves up by a third while the other moves up by a fifth). This motion allows voices to follow a shared melodic contour while still preserving some independence.

Using a mix of these types of motion helps composers create intricate textures and rich harmonic interplay, allowing each voice to contribute to the overall structure without losing its unique identity. Contrapuntal motion is a key tool for creating balance and complexity in musical compositions across genres.

Controlled Composition

A term, and corresponding clause, used in recording contracts and producer contracts, mainly in the United States.

A controlled composition is a musical composition, or part of a composition. Written, by an artist or producer, it is owned or controlled, to some extent, by the artist or producer, or an entity that they own.

Controlled composition clauses, lay out mechanical royalty rates for controlled compositions. They also specify other controlled composition terms.

Controlled composition mechanical royalty rates are normally expressed as a percentage of the statutory rate.

Original arrangements of public domain works are usually considered to be controlled compositions. They typically earn at a reduced mechanical royalty rate than original works written by the artist.

Conversational Marketing

Marketing on social media, promoting products and services using public discussion on forums, blogs, interactive chats etc.

Conversion Costs

Cost of converting music recorded for phono to an audiovisual production format or vice versa.

Conversion Rate

Ratio of of customers to purchase a product or service versus the number who saw the sales message, expressed as a percentage. Conversion rates are also used for mailing list sign ups, membership registrations etc.

Copyleft

Copyright license that asserts public domain conditions for use and distribution. They also try to ensure that future changes are available to everybody, equally.

Typical terms included in the license are attribution for the originators of the work, free distribution, and provision of the same license terms for any derivative work. Copyleft was originally used for software products, before being adopted for other creative content.

A mirror of the standard copyright symbol is sometimes used for copyleft. The symbol itself has no legal meaning.

Copyright

Music copyright provides creators and owners a legal basis for certain restrictions on copying, adapting or otherwise using creative works, commonly including (but not limited to):

• Dramatic works, including any music used in the work;
• Musical works, including any words used in the work;
• Pantomimes and choreographic works;
• Pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works;
• Motion pictures and other audiovisual works;
• Sound recordings;

Copyright protection for an original work of authorship does not extend to any idea or concept relating to or expressed in the work.

Although subject to exclusions, in the USA, copyright owners are granted the rights as described in Section 106 of the Copyright Act.

Specifically, the owner of copyright under has the exclusive rights to do and to authorize any of the following:

• Reproduction of the copyrighted work as copies or phono records;
• Creation of derivative works based upon the copyrighted work;
• Distribution of copies or phone records of the copyrighted work to the public by sale (or other transfer of ownership), or by rental, lease, or lending;
• Public performance of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes, and motion pictures and other audiovisual works;
• Display of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes, and pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, including the individual images of a motion picture or other audiovisual work;
• Public performance / broadcast of the copyrighted sound recordings

For information on the history of Copyright, read “Almost Everything I Know About Copyright”:

Almost Everything I Know About Copyright Part 1

Almost Everything I Know About Copyright Part 2

Almost Everything I Know About Copyright Part 3

Copyright Act

Most countries have their own equivalent of the copyright act. In the USA, “Copyright Act” means the Copyright Law of the United States of America, specifically, Title 17 of the United States Code.

For further information, visit Copyright Act.

Copyright Control

This is when copyright is retained by a writer. In other words copyright of a work is not assigned to a third party, such as a music publisher.

Copyright Infringement

The unauthorized use of a copyrighted work.

Copyright Notice

A copyright notice is used by a copyright owner to claim possession of a published work.

A copyright notice must include:

• Either the word “copyright,” or the “©” symbol
• The year the work was first published
• The copyright holder/owner name

Copyright Office

The Copyright Office is a part of the U.S. Library of Congress. Copyrights are registered with the Copyright Office by filing either physical materials or electronic files.

Copyright Registration

This is the act of filing a claim of copyright on a work with the Copyright Office (Note this doesn’t happen in the UK as the UK system does not have a central Copyright Office.). In the USA registration can be done manually, using paper based forms, or electronically.

Copyright Royalty Board

The CRB is a three-judge panel appointed by the US Librarian of Congress. The CRB determines compulsory rates, like Mechanical royalties, in relation to the Copyright Act. (Section 801 of the US Copyright Act.)

Count

In music, the count is a way of measuring time within a piece of music. Musicians use it to stay in sync with each other and keep a steady rhythm. The count is typically marked by beats, and musicians often divide these beats into specific patterns, like “1, 2, 3, 4” in a 4/4 time signature, where each beat represents a quarter note. Counting helps players know when to start, stop, or change parts and is essential in both live performance and recording.

There are different types of counts:

• Downbeat: The first beat of a measure, often the strongest and emphasized in the count.
• Upbeat: The beat just before the downbeat, often used as a lead-in.
• Subdivision: Splitting the main beats into smaller parts (like counting “1-and-2-and-3-and-4-and”) to capture faster rhythms or finer timing details.

In practice, a conductor or band leader might count in (“1, 2, 3, 4”) to set the tempo, helping the musicians start in unison.

Counterpoint

Counterpoint is a compositional technique in which two or more independent musical lines, or voices, are played or sung simultaneously, creating a harmonically rich and interwoven texture. Each voice in counterpoint has its own distinct melody, but they complement each other, resulting in a cohesive and often complex sound.

Developed and perfected during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, counterpoint is a defining feature of classical music, particularly in the works of composers like Johann Sebastian Bach. In counterpoint, voices are carefully arranged to ensure that they move independently while still harmonizing with one another, often by following specific rules about intervals and rhythm.

Key elements of counterpoint include:

• Contrapuntal Motion: The relationship between voices as they move together. This includes parallel motion (voices move in the same direction at the same interval), contrary motion (voices move in opposite directions), oblique motion (one voice stays still while the other moves), and similar motion (voices move in the same direction but by different intervals).
• Imitation: A common technique in counterpoint where one voice echoes the melody of another, often creating a round or canon effect.
• Voice Leading: A principle that guides the smooth movement of individual melodic lines from note to note to avoid clashing and create a pleasing harmony.

Counterpoint remains widely used in various music genres, from classical and jazz to contemporary styles. It adds depth and interest to compositions, allowing multiple layers to interact dynamically and offering listeners a complex, immersive listening experience.

Counting

Counting rhythm involves assigning syllables or numbers to each note value within a measure, helping musicians stay in time and understand the timing of each note. Here’s a breakdown of how the most common note values are counted in 4/4 time, where each beat is represented by a quarter note.

Basic Note Values and Counting

1. Whole Note (4 beats)

   • Counted as: “1 – 2 – 3 – 4”
   • The whole note spans the entire measure in 4/4, so you hold the note for all four beats.

2. Half Note (2 beats)

   • Counted as: “1 – 2” (then another half note would be “3 – 4”)
   • Each half note takes up two beats, so you count to two for each note.

3. Quarter Note (1 beat)

   • Counted as: “1 – 2 – 3 – 4”
   • Each beat in 4/4 is counted separately, giving each quarter note one count.

4. Eighth Note (1/2 beat)

   • Counted as: “1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &”
   • Each eighth note divides the beat in half, so you say “and” between the numbers to represent the off-beat eighth notes.

5. Sixteenth Note (1/4 beat)

   • Counted as: “1 e & a 2 e & a 3 e & a 4 e & a”
   • Sixteenth notes divide each beat into four parts. The syllables “e” and “a” help keep track of each sixteenth note within the beat.

6. Thirty-Second Note (1/8 beat)

   • Counted as: “1 ta te ta ti ta ta ta ta 2 ta te ta ti ta ta ta ta” (or similar syllables)
   • Each beat is divided into eight parts, making counting tricky but manageable with practice. Sometimes, teachers or musicians use different syllable systems, but the key is to keep each subdivision evenly spaced.

Coupling

When a record label puts a track on a record featuring more than one artist. For example, when a record label places a track on a compilation album.

Cover

When a song is recorded or performed by an artist, who is not the original songwriter, it is known as “a cover” of the original version.

Depending on country, anyone can perform, or record, a writer’s work, under the terms of any assignments (if they exist), and cleared through a collection society or music publisher. Such blanket licenses usually see the writer being paid both mechanical and performance income.

Creative Commons

Boilerplate, share-alike copyright licenses that bring together variants of copyleft and creative content.

Free distribution licenses are permanent. They cannot be revoked.

Creative Commons are normally indicated with a symbol made from two letter Cs, but the correct legal symbol is actually the standard copyright symbol.

creativecommons.org

Crescendo

A gradual increase in volume.

Crew

Collective term for the group of people who work for, and travel with, an artist on a tour. Fellow performers are not included.

CRM

Short for Customer Relationship Management, CRM is a business software service, increasingly used by professional bands and artists.

CRM software is used to manage a broad range of fan interactions. For example, CRM software is used to manage the personal details of fans including managing the email database, any fan communications, the logs of any activities, transactions, and complaints etc.

CRM software commonly integrates with commerce platforms providing the integration of buying, ordering, accounting alongside call centres/telephony and other services.

Cross Collateralize

This is the mechanism used by a record label to recover or recoup an album advance from a variety of income streams, including those relating to other albums. When signed to a record label, all advances and royalties, between that label and artist, will normally be pooled into a single pot.

The income streams that will be leveraged in such contracts are likely to be very diverse.

As an example: In the circumstance where an individual, who is both a writer and an artist, signs “cross-collaterized” publishing and recording agreements with the same company, or affiliated companies, any advances paid to the artist under either agreement can be recouped from any income that relates to either of the agreements. Tin other words, publishing royalties or recording royalties can be used to repay the advances relating to either or both of the publishing or recording agreements.

Crossfade

A technique that blends the end of one sound with the start of another by fading one element or track of a mix out, as you fade another one in.

Crossover

If a song gets airplay in more than one genre, market, chart, or format, it is a Crossover.

Crosstalk

When one signal “spills” or “leaks” onto another signal during the transmission process. For example when two audio cables are routed adjacent to each other and signal leaks from one onto the other.

This most commonly happens with poorly shielded cables carrying signals with sharp transient spikes. This is due to unwanted conductive, inductive or capacative coupling between the two cables (or anywhere on the cirtcuit).

Crosstalk is also applied to unwanted spill (bleed, leakage) from an unwanted acoustic sound source into a microphone, for example bleed from a singer’s headphones onto a vocal recording, or hi-hat hits onto the snare microphone. This is effectively acoustic coupling.

Cue

In music, a cue is a signal or prompt given to musicians, performers, or audio engineers to indicate when to start, stop, change parts, or make specific adjustments. Cues are crucial for keeping performances synchronized, ensuring everyone knows when to come in, make transitions, or bring in effects.

Cues can be given in various ways:

• Visual Cues: These are typically non-verbal signals, like a conductor’s gesture, a nod, or a hand movement from a bandleader, which indicate timing, volume changes, or mood adjustments.
• Audio Cues: Sometimes, a distinct sound or a specific musical phrase serves as a cue, especially in larger ensembles or during recording sessions. This might include a click track in headphones or a spoken command in a recording studio.
• Cue Sheets: In settings like film scoring or theater, a cue sheet outlines the exact moments music or sound effects should begin and end. This written guide helps musicians, producers, or sound designers follow timing precisely.

Cues are essential in both live and recorded settings, enabling smooth transitions and helping musicians stay in sync during complex performances. Whether given by conductors, band members, or production staff, cues ensure everyone on stage or in the studio is aligned, enhancing the overall quality and cohesion of a musical piece.

Cue Sheet

A cue sheet gives details of timing and other song information for use in a film, video or broadcast. A cue sheet can list musical works and their duration, to help with royalty collection.

Custom Record

This is an “on demand” custom Physical Record, that has been manufactured specifically for a consumer who selects the individual recordings to be included on the Physical Record. This manufacturing process may be in the form of a vending machine.

Cut

A song recorded by an artist is known as “a cut”. The term “cut” likely derives from etching or cutting processes used when creating physical records.

Cutoff Frequency

Cutoff Frequency is the point in an audio filter where frequencies begin to be reduced or “cut off” from the signal. In sound engineering and production, the cutoff frequency is a key parameter for shaping and controlling sound, as it determines the range of frequencies that pass through or are filtered out by the audio effect.

Cutoff frequency is essential for both high-pass and low-pass filters:

• High-Pass Filter (HPF): Allows frequencies higher than the cutoff to pass through while reducing or cutting out frequencies below it. HPFs are commonly used to remove low-end rumble or unwanted bass frequencies, often on vocals or higher-pitched instruments.

• Low-Pass Filter (LPF): Allows frequencies lower than the cutoff to pass through while reducing or cutting out frequencies above it. LPFs are typically used to remove harsh high-end sounds or to create a warmer, more subdued tone, especially on bass or synth sounds.

In addition to high-pass and low-pass filters, cutoff frequency is also a key feature in other filter types, like band-pass (which allows frequencies within a certain range) and notch filters (which remove a narrow range of frequencies).

The cutoff frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), indicating the frequency threshold. Adjusting this parameter is essential for mixing and sound design, as it helps remove unwanted noise, shape the tonal balance, and create various effects. Whether clearing up a mix or adding creative filtering, the cutoff frequency is a powerful tool that enables producers and engineers to tailor sounds with precision.

Cutouts

Physical Records that are distributed for retail sale on as non-returnable items. (See Returns.) Often defaced (for example, by clipping the corner of an album sleeve or in the case of CDs, by drilling a hole in the corner of the Jewel case). Artist Royalties are NOT payable for cutouts.

Cyber Locker

Audio or video storage that can be accessed online by an individual or a group.

Cymbal

A piece of circular metal with a bell shape in the center used as part of a drum kit to create crashing or other glass like sounds. Cymbals can be created by using a hand hammering process or by using a lathe. Different types of cymbals include Crash, Ride, Splash, Hi-Hat, Bells, and Chinas.